Great Ming Military: April 2015

30 April 2015

Multiple-barrel arquebuses of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MARCH 30, 2022

Zhen Die Chong (震疊銃, lit. 'Terror gun')

Ming Dynasty Double-Barreled Matchlock Gun

Drawing of a Zhen Die Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Breech-loading cannons of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MAY 7, 2022, minor update DECEMBER 31, 2025

Large Fo Lang Ji from the Nanjing City Wall Museum.

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機, lit. 'Frankish engine'), named after the Chinese name for Portuguese people (itself a Chinese transcription of related terms farang/farangi/ferenggi, used in the Muslim world to refer to White Europeans), was the Chinese version of breech-loading swivel gun, which they reverse-engineered from the Portuguese.

Fo Lang Ji actually entered Chinese arsenal surprisingly early—the weapon came to the attention of the Ming court in October 1517, after a translator working on a Portuguese ship (likely a part of Fernão Pires de Andrade's fleet, which visited China in the same year) gifted a cannon and gunpowder formula to Gu Ying Xiang (顧應祥) during an anti-piracy operation. However, Imperial prince Zhu Chen Hao (朱宸濠) already manufactured some Fo Lang Ji in secret as early as May 1517 in preparation for his rebellion two years later, suggesting that the general populace may have learnt of this weapon well before the Ming court. In any case, after Sino-Portuguese relations turned sour, Ming navy sent to evict the Portuguese from Guangdong quickly found itself at the receiving end of this devastating weapon during Battle of Tunmen in 1521. In the ensuing blockade, Deputy Marine Commissioner (海道副使) Wang Hong (汪鋐), through military inspector He Ru (何儒) acting as an undercover agent, successfully enticed two Chinese sailors working for the Portuguese to defect. With the technical know-how acquired from these defectors, Wang Hong successfully reverse-engineered the Fo Lang Ji in a little under 40 days, then proceeded to use the new weapon to defeat the Portuguese.

After the conflict, Wang Hong became a fervent advocate of the Fo Lang Ji and wrote several memorials to the throne to promote the weapon. In 1523, Beijing arsenal began to manufacture the Fo Lang Ji on an official basis, soon followed by Nanjing arsenal in 1524. By 1529, a mere seven years after the initial production run, virtually the entire country had been equipped with this new weapon. The Fo Lang Ji quickly supplanted older Chinese cannons and became the most important artillery piece in the Ming arsenal.

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機)

A standard Fo Lang Ji swivel gun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

While the basic design of Fo Lang Ji was virtually unchanged from its Portuguese predecessor, Chinese gunsmiths created a great number of variant designs of nearly every size, power, and platform imaginable, ranging from downsized handheld guns, to standard-sized models mounted on small gun carriages or saddle frames similar to zamburak, to heavier piece mounted on war carts, warships and gun emplacements.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji (鷹爪佛狼機, lit. 'Eagle talon Frankish engine')

Drawing of a Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji was simply a small Fo Lang Ji mounted on a three chi tall iron spiked tripod (which gave the weapon its name).

Fei Shan Shen Pao (飛山神砲, lit. 'Flying mountain divine cannon')

Drawing of a Fei Shan Shen Pao, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》'.

Fei Shan Shen Pao was a medium-weight Fo Lang Ji with two pair of trunnions.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍, lit. 'Invincible great general')

Drawing of a Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was a heavy breech-loading cannon primarily designed for close range anti-personnel purpose. A single blast from this cannon could rain death over a very large area in a manner not unlike a giant shotgun—each of its three chambers were loaded with one heavy stone ball and a whopping 365 iron pellets—although the stone ball was still capable of pulverising walls and buildings.

Weighing one thousand and fifty jin (619.5 kg or 1,366 lbs), Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was one of the heaviest cannons in Ming arsenal until the advent of Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲). Regrettably, while it was undoubtedly devastating, Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was actually slightly underpowered for a cannon of this size due to its breech-loading nature, relatively short barrel, and the fact that its projectile weight and black powder load were limited by the size of its chamber. These shortcomings eventually led to the development of lighter and more powerful Ye Gong Shen Chong (葉公神銃).

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao (無敵神飛砲, lit. 'Invincible divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, sometimes shortened to Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon'), was a slightly shortened naval variant of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun. Each of its three chambers were loaded with a heavy stone ball and 200 iron pellets, although iron pellets were sometimes omitted to increase the power of stone ball.

Like its land-bound counterpart, Wu Di Shen Fei Pao was the heaviest naval artillery available to Ming navy until the advent of Hong Yi Pao.

Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Shen Fei Pao, from 'Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)'.

Recorded in seventeenth century military treatise Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)', Shen Fei Pao appears to be a streamlined and more powerful version of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, lacking the iron rings used for lifting the cannon found on Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, but came with gunsight-equipped, wrought iron chambers.

The largest "Mark 1" Shen Fei Pao was 8 chi (256 cm or 8'5") in length and 1,000 jin (590 kg or 1300 lbs) in weight. Its five chambers were 1 chi 5 cun (48 cm or 1'7") in length, 80 jin (47.2 kg or 104 lbs) in weight, and had a bore size of 7 cun (22.4 cm or 8.8"). They were typically loaded with either a heavy 25 jin (14.75 kg or 32.5 lbs) stone ball, or 200 stone pellets plus 500 iron pellets (but not both at the same time unlike Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao), propelled by 5 jin (2.95 kg or 6.5 lbs) of black powder.

Other variants

There were also many known models of Fo Lang Ji without accompanying illustrations. Examples include Ma Shang Fo Lang Ji (馬上佛郎機, lit. 'Horseman's Frankish engine') designed to be used on horseback, Lian Zhu Fo Lang Ji Pao (連珠佛朗機砲, lit. 'Rapid fire Frankish engine'), an iron double-ended Fo Lang Ji with shortened barrels, as well as Liu Xing Pao (流星砲, lit. 'Shooting star cannon'), a type of brass Fo Lang Ji with rectangular-shaped open breech and lengthened barrel.

Jia Ban Chuan (夾板船/甲板船)

Drawing of a European sailing ship, probably a Portuguese East Indiaman, from 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'.

Er Hu Zhui Yang Jian (二虎追羊箭)

MINOR UPDATE OCTOBER 9, 2024

Drawing of an Er Hu Zhui Yang Jian, from a Qing Dynasty print of 'Huo Long Jing (《火龍經》)'.

Er Hu Zhui Yang Jian (二虎追羊箭, lit. 'Two tigers chasing goat arrow') was a type of rocket arrow equipped with two rocket motors to achieve extended range. It was equipped with a three-pronged arrowhead as well as silk threads wound around the shaft just below the arrowhead, both dipped in poison, a four cun five fen long poison smoke-cum-incendiary warhead, as well as two seven cun long rocket motors, all mounted below the silk thread. The warhead and both rockets were connected to a single fuse.

It is not known if the rocket motors on Er Hu Zhui Yang Jian were configured to be ignited at once or in sequence, although the latter seems more plausible given the difficulties of igniting two rockets at exactly the same time.

Shen Huo Wan Quan Tie Wei Ying (神火萬全鐵圍營)

Drawing of a Shen Huo Wan Quan Tie Wei Ying, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Shen Huo Wan Quan Tie Wei Ying (神火萬全鐵圍營, lit. 'Perfect iron fence of divine fire'), sometimes shortened to Shen Huo Tie Wei Ying (神火鐵圍營, lit. 'Iron fence of divine fire'), was probably the earliest iteration of the Chinese rocket cart. It was a heavy wagon mounted with four wooden cabinets. Each cabinet contained four Shen Nu (神弩, lit. 'Divine crossbow'), four Shen Jian (神箭, lit. 'Divine arrow'), four Shen Qiang (神槍) and four Shen Qian (神鉛, lit. 'Divine lead') or Shen Dan (神彈, lit. 'Divine bullet'), for a total of sixty-four firearms.

Wu Gong Chuan (蜈蚣船)

Drawing of a Wu Gong Chuan, from 'Chou Hai Tu Bian (《籌海圖編》)'.

Rocket carts of the Ming Dynasty

IMPORTANT UPDATE NOVEMBER 15, 2024

Ever since the founding of Ming Dynasty, the Chinese had been an avid user of rocket weapon. Early Ming Dynasty rocket cart could have an upward of six hundred rockets, but subsequent redesigns reduced the number of rockets to make the cart more mobile.

Huo Jian Che (火箭車, rocket cart)

Drawing of a Huo Jian Che, from 'Si Zhen San Guan Zhi (《四鎮三關志》)'.

Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Yi Wo Feng (一窩蜂)

MINOR UPDATE JANUARY 4, 2024

Yi Wo Feng (一窩蜂, lit. 'Nest of bees')

Drawing of a Yi Wo Feng, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The famous Nest of Bees was a thirty-two shot multiple rocket launcher. Although often lauded as the "first handheld multiple rocket launcher", the Nest of Bees was in fact a wagon-mounted weapon. Unlike most other Chinese multiple rocket launchers that used smaller rockets, Nest of Bees carried thirty-two full sized Shen Ji Jian (神機箭) rockets, and had a maximum range of three hundred paces.

Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Huo Long Chu Shui (火龍出水)

Ming Chinese Fire Dragon Multistage Cluster Rocket

Drawing of a Huo Long Chu Shui, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Huo Long Chu Shui (火龍出水, lit. 'Fire Dragon Out of the Water') was perhaps the most well-known of ancient Chinese weapons. It was often hailed as the first ever multistage rocket as well as cluster munition rocket.

Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Fei Kong Ji Zei Zhen Tian Lei Pao (飛空擊賊震天雷砲)

MINOR UPDATE JANUARY 29, 2024

Chinese rocket-powered exploding wingball

Drawing of a Fei Kong Ji Zei Zhen Tian Lei Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Fei Kong Ji Zei Zhen Tian Lei Pao (飛空擊賊震天雷砲, lit. 'Bandit-attacking, flying heaven-shaking thunder bomb'), also known as Zhen Tian Fei Pao (震天飛砲, lit. 'Heaven-shaking flying bomb'), was a type of ball-shaped winged rocket named after the famous cast-iron bomb used by Jin Dynasty army during Siege of Kaifeng. The weapon consisted of three components: a globular warhead made of papered basketry, a black powder rocket motor embedded within the warhead, as well as two wings. It was loaded with explosive, poisonous smoke gunpowder as well as poisoned fragmentation, and was usable as both siege and field artillery.

Firelock firearms of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED JULY 04, 2022, minor update March 6, 2026

Firelock guns—such as the wheellock, snaphaunce, miquelet lock, and true flintlock—represented the pinnacle of small-arms technology in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, offering superior reliability, weather resistance, and firing speed compared with matchlocks. Although the Ming Dynasty ultimately failed to adopt this advanced firearm on a large scale before its demise, various contemporary records and pieces of evidence suggest that knowledge of firelock guns was surprisingly widespread in late Ming China and that they may have entered limited service with the Ming military.

Zi Sheng Huo Chong (自生火銃, lit. 'Self-fire generating gun') (ca. 1635)

Drawing of a Zi Sheng Huo Chong, from 'Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)'.

The seventeenth-century military treatise Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》) authored by Bi Mao Kang (畢懋康) is the only Ming military treatise to record a firelock gun, likely a miquelet lock, with a clear illustration. This weapon, called Zi Sheng Huo Chong, was said to be weatherproof and more convenient than a matchlock gun.

Qian Li Chong (千裡銃, lit. 'Thousand li gun') (ca. 1565)

The Qian Li Chong was a type of handheld firearm—likely a firelock pistol—that was said to be a simple yet accurate weapon, worn on the belt and capable of being drawn and fired at a moment’s notice.

This weapon was introduced by Zhang Gong Fu (張公輔), the Regional Investigating Censor of Jiangxi (江西巡按), and was approved for mass production by the Ming court in 1565, with the Liaodong Defence Region noted as being capable of producing its own. This may possibly have been the only firelock gun to enter full (albeit likely still limited) military service with the Ming army.

Pi Li Huo Chong (霹靂火銃, lit. 'Thunderclap gun') (ca. 1599)

Ming firearm enthusiast and specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) may have been the first to discuss the pros and cons of a firelock gun—which he called the Pi Li Huo Chong—in detail. Regrettably, although he successfully reverse-engineered the weapon for his own use, he did not elaborate on the details of its ignition mechanism and considered the gun too expensive and complex for large-scale adoption.

Xu Guang Qi's attestation (exact date unknown, possibly 1605)

The firelock gun was also attested by the Ming polymath and military reformer Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟) in one of his memorials to the throne. Although he did not specifically describe a firelock gun or make a clear distinction between matchlock and firelock weapons, he did attest to the existence of particularly well-crafted arquebuses that could “use stone (i.e. either flint or pyrite) to ignite fire”.

Arquebuses and muskets mentioned in Bing Lu (《兵錄》) (ca. 1630)

In a section discussing arquebuses and muskets, the seventeenth-century military treatise Bing Lu also attests that both weapons could be equipped with either a matchlock or a firelock mechanism.

Fu Shou Ji (伏手機, lit. 'Concealed hand machine') (ca. 1632)

The Fu Shou Ji was a firearm of unknown type encountered by Chen Zi Yi (程子頤), author of the military treatise Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》), during a military operation to suppress a rebellion. He later reverse-engineered the weapon, renamed it Li Gong Guai (李公拐, lit. 'Lord Li's crutch'), and attempted to promote it to the Ming army.

Although the Fu Shou Ji was evidently not a firelock gun, Chen Zi Yi compared it favourably to both matchlock and firelock guns and lamented that even the rebels had access to superior firearms that the Ming army lacked. This suggests that firelock guns had already entered limited service with the Ming army by his time.

Section of the Ming Dynasty scroll painting 'Kang Wo Tu Juan (《抗倭圖卷》)', depicting auxiliary troops armed with hook-like polearms. Other weapon such as Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀) can be seen in the illustration as well.

Lang Bing (狼兵, lit. 'Wolf troop') were a type of auxiliary infantry hailed from Guangxi region that were organised under the Tusi system. They were famous for their ferocity in battle, but also notorious for their lack of discipline and penchant for causing troubles.

The exact composition of Lang Bing was (and still is) a matter of debate, even during Ming period. Some considered only Tu Si troops from Nandan, Donglan, and Na Di (那地, near present-day Shanglin) to be "authentic" Lang Bing or Zhen Lang (真狼, lit. 'True wolf'), while others also counted Tu Si troops from Tianzhou and Gui Shun Zhou (歸順州, present-day Jingxi) among their ranks. The majority of Lang Bing consisted of Tong Ren (獞人, present-day Zhuang people) and Yao Ren (猺人, present-day Yao people). In fact, it is generally accepted that "Lang (狼, wolf)" in Lang Bing was derived from either Liang (俍) or Tong (峒), both archaic names of Zhuang people.

Lang Bing were frequently called to suppress ethnic minority conflicts and uprisings (even among their own people). By mid-Ming period, they also assisted Ming army to repel Wokou (倭寇) raids.

Equipment

Lang Bing were most famous for their skill in Yan Wei Pai (燕尾牌) and short sabres, although over the years they gruadually expanded their arsenal, adopting poisoned javelins, poisoned crossbows, spears as well as forks. By late-Ming period, they even had their own cavalry, arquebusiers, as well as specifically trained dogs to retrieve thrown javelins.

Lang Bing generally fought unarmoured.

Organisation and tactics

Under the Tu Si system, Lang Bing served as a reserve force that was only called upon in time of war. However, due to their high frequency of mobilisation, many Lang Bing were deployed to places far from their homeland and eventually settled there permanently. Some of these Lang Bing formed new communities and became new Tu Si, while others were either absorbed into regular army, or reorganised into semi-permanent garrisons that were more or less unofficial Wei-Suo (衛所).

Lang Bing had a very high qualification standard for their commanders. In theory, an officer qualified for commanding one thousand troops in other armies may only command one hundred Lang Bing, while an officer qualified for leading one hundred troops may only lead ten. This may be due to their indiscipline nature, requiring more experienced officers to handle them.

As lightly armoured swordsmen, Lang Bing relied on their ferocious charge to quickly close the distance and enter close combat as soon as possible, as they lacked the staying power of armoured troops.

Mixed reputation

Lang Bing often fought with such ferocity, it was said that twenty Lang Bing could easily overwhelm two hundred Wokou. However, due to their lack of discipline, Lang Bing were prone to break and flee if the battle went unfavourably for them. Their aggressiveness also made them more vulnerable to enemy ambush.

If left unchecked, Lang Bing often engaged in pillage, murder, rape, slavery and human trafficking at the place they were stationed.

Reference

Blog post updated with new and more accurate information taken from 明代的狼兵 on 逸佚居 (Traditional Chinese).

Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀)

Like many Chinese weapons, the famous Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀, 'Horse-chopping sabre') has been subject to a lot of misinformations and misconceptions. Over the course of China's long history, the term had been applied to many different weapons, which led to confusion over the true origin and purposes of this weapon.

However, upon closer inspection there are indeed traceable similarities between different iterations of Zhan Ma Dao/Jian. In general, they can be roughly grouped into three types:

Type A: Executioner's sword (Han–early Song period)

Very little is known about the horse chopper of this period. Based on its name ("Jian" instead of "Dao"), it is believed that the weapon was a double-edged sword, although its size and shape remain a mystery.

Han Dynasty Zhan Ma Jian (斬馬劍, lit. 'Horse-chopping sword')

Five surviving Han period Jian. All swords in this photo, save for the second one from the top, are designed for two-handed use, the longest one being 146 cm in length. All swords are currently kept at Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King, Guangzhou, China. It should be noted that none of these swords are explicitly stated to be Zhan Ma Jian, although an actual example (if any survives) should look quite similar to these swords.

More properly known as Duan Ma Jian (斷馬劍, lit. 'Horse-severing sword'), this weapon was actually a sword of state, made specifically for the emperor for ceremonial purpose and to execute treacherous officials. The sword is believed to acquire its name from the White Horse Oath (白馬之盟), in which a white horse was ritually slaughtered and its blood wiped on the participants' lips as a symbolism of the oath of loyalty and upholding the bloodline of Han emperor Liu Bang (劉邦).

Contrary to popular misconceptions, the original meaning of Zhan Ma Jian was "a sword that is sharp enough to chop through a horse" rather than "a sword specifically designed to cut down horse".

Sui and Tang Dynasty Mo Dao (陌刀)

While not explicitly described as a horse chopper, Tang Dynasty Mo Dao had been compared to Han Dynasty Zhan Ma Jian, and later Song Dynasty texts also liken the Zhan Ma Dao to this weapon. Mo Dao was primarily carried by barrier troops to execute cowardly or deserting soldiers, but performed just as well as a battlefield weapon. It was often used alongside other heavy weapons such as war axes, quarterstaves, and flails, in defence as well as during siege and assault. Mo Dao was also one of the preferred close combat weapons of Tang archers and crossbowmen (Ming Chinese continued this practice of arming ranged troops with heavy polearms).

Many Mo Dao users were exceptionally strong individuals, but the most famous one was probably Tang commander Li Si Ye (李嗣業), who used the weapon to great effect to stop the pursuing Abbasid army after Tang army suffered a defeat at Battle of Talas.

To date, no surviving Mo Dao has been discovered. Drawing upon descriptions found in various Tang Dynasty texts, Mo Dao seems to be a type of double-edged chopping polearm, up to one zhang (118.1 in or 300 cm) in length and fifteen jin (22.48 pounds or 10.2 kg) in weight. It is also speculated that Japanese ōmi-yari (大身槍) either descended from, or was related to, this weapon.

Type B: Cleaver type (Song–Qing period)

Whether a two-handed sword or a polearm, horse choppers of this period inevitably had a long (usually three chi or more) cleaving blade that ended in very steep clip point or so-called "reverse tanto" point (although many Song Dynasty swords had a blunt square point instead). The blade could be straight (Song period) or slightly curved (Ming and Qing period).

Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao

Photo of a Song Dynasty sword that matches the description of Zi Zhi Tong Jian Chang Bian. Note that the sword edge is facing downward. Image taken from Thomas Chen's website but original source unknown.

Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao represented the long and unbroken Chinese tradition of using large, two-handed war swords as battlefield weapon dating back as early as Warring States period. Xu Zi Zhi Tong Jian Chang Bian (《續資治通鑑長編》) describes the weapon as a large two-handed sword with a three chi (93.6 cm) blade, one chi (31.2 cm) hilt, and a large ring pommel.

Unlike earlier Zhan Ma Jian and Mo Dao, Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao was mass-produced for the rank and file (there was even a special bureau that produced nothing but Zhan Ma Dao). It was also really designed with the intention to cut down heavily armoured cavalry.

Ming Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao

A Zhan Ma Dao (left) and a Yan Yue Dao (偃月刀) (right), from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

Sometimes known as Kan Dao (砍刀, lit. 'Chopping sabre'), Ming Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao was a glaive with a three chi (96 cm) blade, four chi (128 cm) shaft, and a butt spike. It could be distinguished from other Chinese glaives by its longer blade, clip point tip and lack of protrusion or hook on the back of the blade. This type of Zhan Ma Dao could be considered synonymous with Po Dao (朴刀), although not all Po Dao were Zhan Ma Dao.

Incidentally, Zhan Ma Dao was one of the few Chinese weapons that made an impression on contemporary Western observers. In his book titled Neglected Formosa ('t Verwaerlossde Formosa), Frederick Coyett described Koxinga's troops "wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man", a description that matches Zhan Ma Dao perfectly.

Although labelled as "Ming Dynasty" Zhan Ma Dao in this blog post, this type of polearm was used well into Qing period.

Type C: Ōdachi-inspired weapon (Ming–Qing period)

Clearly inspired by Japanese ōdachi (大太刀), which was adopted by Ming Chinese as Chang Dao (長刀), this type of Zhan Ma Dao had a long, gently curved blade and hilt designed for two-handed use. While not specifically designed as anti-cavalry weapon, Chang Dao was indeed used as such by Chinese troops, although the name change only happened during Qing period.

(It should be noted that the name change was rather more like a military designation of an existing weapon, similar to how AR-15 was designated as M16 by the US military.)

Qing Dynasty Lu Ying Zhan Ma Dao

Drawing of a Qing Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao, from 'Huang Chao Li Qi Tu Shi (《皇朝禮器圖式》)'.

Lu Ying Zhan Ma Dao was one of the several types of two-handed sabres issued to Lu Ying (綠營, Green Standard Army). It was essentially a Qing iteration of Ming period Chang Dao with minor modifications on size and fittings.

For those interested to learn more about Qing period Chinese two-handed sabres, here is a very good article: Chinese long sabers of the Qing dynasty

Other similar weapons

Qing Dynasty "Zhan Ma Jian"

A truly monstrous sword that dwarfed many actual polearms in length, this weapon had a long and wavy "flamberge" style blade mounted on a wooden shaft that was only slightly shorter than the blade. Its blade alone was longer than most Chinese jian.

As the sword was a non-regulation weapon and only a handful survived, it did not have an official name. Nevertheless, the sword has been casually referred to as Zhan Ma Jian and certainly looks the part.

Japanese Zanbatō (ざんばとう or 斬馬刀)

A modern nakamaki nōdachi being advertised as a zanbatō. Note the black wrapping at the lower third of the blade.

Contrary to popular misconception, there is no such thing as a Japanese zanbatō. "Zanbatō" is simply the Japanese pronunciation of Zhan Ma Dao and refers to the Chinese weapon. In fact, the term did not even enter common usage until 1970s.

In popular media, any sufficiently large Japanese sword, typically an ōdachi, nakamaki nōdachi (中巻野太刀, a nōdachi sword with the last portion of its blade wrapped in thin cord, which serves as a secondary grip similar to a zweihänder's ricasso/sub-hilt. It is the predecessor of nagamaki) or sometimes a bisentō (眉尖刀), can all be referred to as zanbatō.

Po Dao (朴刀)

An ornate Po Dao once belonged to Taiping general Luo Da Gang (羅大綱). Private Collection.

Po Dao was a type of Chinese sword or glaive with a cleaving blade that usually ended in a very steep clip point. Po Dao came in one-handed, two-handed, equal handle to blade ratio, polearm and even a "bifurcated weapon" form, although the term generally refers to polearm version in common usage. It should be noted that the weapon's name should be written as "朴刀", even in traditional Chinese. It cannot be written as "樸刀".

Humble Origin

The weapon known as Po Dao first appeared during Song Dynasty. At the time it was also known as Po Dao (潑刀), Bō Dao (撥刀), Bó Dao (博刀 or 膊刀) and many other names. Essentially a weaponised agricultural tool, Po Dao was not considered a "military grade" regulation weapon and commonly found in the hands of militias, bandits, outlaws and rebels alike (and thus enjoyed unusually high exposure in literature, dramas and plays, which tend to portray civilian rather than military life).

Horse Chopper

A Po Dao (highlighted), also known as Zhan Ma Dao, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

It is not known exactly when, or why, long-handled Po Dao came to be known as Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀), although this may be related to Song general and Chinese national folk hero Yue Fei (岳飛) and his elite army, the Yue Jia Jun (岳家軍, lit. 'Army of House Yue'). Yue Fei and his army famously wielded a weapon known as Ma Zha Dao (麻紥刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped knife') to chop at vulnerable horse legs of the otherwise heavily armoured Jurchen cataphracts. While the length and form of Ma Zha Dao had been lost to the passage of time (although it is almost certainly a two-handed chopping polearm, a.l.a. Po Dao), Yue Fei's legendary exploits had profound influence on later Chinese military thinking. By Ming period, weapons such as Ma Zha Da Kang Dao (麻紥大砍刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped great chopping sabre') and Ma Zha Zhan Ma Dao (麻紮斬馬刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped horse-chopping sabre') started to show up in Ming arsenal records, alongside regular Zhan Ma Dao. Polearm/glaive type Zhan Ma Dao also replaced Song-era two-handed swords as the most ubiquitous horse chopper.

Although Zhan Ma Dao had become a more recognisable name for Po Dao during Ming period, some Ming texts, such as the writings of general Yu Da You (俞大猷), still refers the weapon with its old name.

Cheng Zi Yi's modified Po Dao

Cheng Zi Yi's modified Po Dao and scabbard, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

Late Ming period military writer Cheng Zi Yi (程子頤) designed a two-handed sword version of Po Dao in order to make the weapon more compatible with Dan Dao Fa Xuan (單刀法選) techniques. By doing so, he effectively combined two types of Zhan Ma Dao (Type B and Type C) into one weapon.

The new weapon featured ridged cross-section and resembled both Dan Dao (單刀) and Song-era Zhan Ma Dao.

Qing Dynasty Po Dao

Different types of Qing Dynasty Po Dao. Top left: Lu Ying Pu Dao. Top mid: Lu Ying Kuan Ren Pian Dao. Top right: Lu Ying Kuan Ren Da Dao. Bottom left: Lu Ying Chuan Wei Dao. Bottom mid: Lu Ying Hu Ya Dao. Bottom right: Tiao Dao. Images taken from 'Qin Ding Da Qing Hui Dian Tu 《欽定大清會典圖》' and 'Huang Chao Li Qi Tu Shi (《皇朝禮器圖式》)'.

After the fall of Ming, many elements of former Ming military were absorbed into Qing military system and reorganised into either Lu Ying (綠營, Green Standard Army) or Han Jun (漢軍, lit. 'Han army', ethnic Han bannermen). These Han Chinese soldiers retained most of their traditional weapons and equipment, only minimally modified to adapt to the new military regulation.

Under Qing military regulation, Po Dao was divided into several subtypes based on their length and blade profile:

Lu Ying Pu Dao (綠營撲刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army Pu Dao') was a rather short, one-handed version of Po Dao.
Lu Ying Kuan Ren Pian Dao (綠營寬刃㓲刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army broad bladed slicing sabre') was a Po Dao with a handle of about equal length to its blade.
Lu Ying Kuan Ren Da Dao (綠營寬刃大刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army broad bladed great glaive') was a standard polearm-length Po Dao.
Lu Ying Chuan Wei Dao (綠營船尾刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army stern sabre') was named due to the blade shape's similarity to the stern of a ship. It was a two-handed sword that had a longer and sharpened clip point tip for better thrusting capability.
Lu Ying Hu Ya Dao (綠營虎牙刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army tiger tooth sabre') was a larger version of Chuan Wei Dao that had a roughly equal ratio of handle length to blade length.
Teng Pai Ying Tiao Dao (藤牌營挑刀, lit. 'Rattan Shield Regiment lifting glaive') was a polearm-length version of Chuan Wei Dao with narrower blade. Unlike other weapons in this list, this weapon was issued to Han Bannermen that specialised in rattan shield tactics.

Late Qing period Shuang Shou Dai (雙手帶) and Tai Ping Dao (太平刀)

Mid-nineteenth century export painting depicting a militiaman armed with a Shuang Shou Dai. From Digital Collections of the New York Public Library. (Source: Kung Fu Tea)

As the once great Qing Empire aged and corruption began to run rampant, its hereditary military system also weakened and eventually collapsed. Militias and levies replaced professional soldiers as the main source of recruit, and brought with them many non-regulation weapons. Po Dao, which had its root in agricultural tool and civilian weapon, once again became one of the most common close combat weapons of the Qing army.

Late Qing period Po Dao were generally short polearms with roughly equal length handle and blade. As old regulations and names fall into disuse, these short polearms came to be known as Shuang Shou Dai (雙手帶, lit. 'Double hand carry'), even though the term originally referred to a type of two-handed sabre. After Taiping Rebellion broke out, this weapon gained yet another moniker "Tai Ping Dao (太平刀, lit. 'Taiping sabre')" due to its prevalence among Taiping rebels.

Republican long handled Da Dao (大刀)

Chinese soldiers during the Second Sino-Japanese War, armed with Shuang Shou Dai-type Da Dao.

Throughout the entire Second Sino-Japanese War, Chinese forces often found themselves severely underequipped and had to outfit their soldiers with all sort of sabres, cleavers, and glaives. With little standardisation going on, these weapons were lumped together and collectively called Da Dao (大刀, lit. 'Great sabre') or sometimes Kan Dao (砍刀, lit. 'Chopping sabre') regardless of their length, shape and size. Some Shuang Shou Dai also saw service in the war as Da Dao, and techniques of Shuang Shou Dai became the basis of Da Dao drills.

Gou Qiang (鈎鎗)

Drawing of a Gou Qiang, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

Gou Qiang (鈎鎗, barbed spear) was a cavalry spear with two to four three small hooks below the spearhead. It measured eight chi five cun in length and weighted three jin.

Xian Qiang (線鎗)

Drawing of a Xian Qiang, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

Xian Qiang (線鎗, lit. 'Line spear' or 'Linear spear') was a lightweight lance or cavalry spear used by Ming cavalrymen in Northern China. General Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) standardised the weapon into its current form, with a two chi spearhead and seven chi shaft, for a total length of nine chi. The spear shaft was extremely thin, only one cun in diameter, and the spear only weighted three jin. The spearhead was tapered to an acute point for better penetration.

Chang Dao (長刀)

MINOR UPDATE DECEMBER 12, 2023

『此自倭犯中國始有之。』
"This (weapon) only became known (to the Chinese) since the incursion of Japanese into China."
— General Qi Ji Guang

Cheng Zong You's Dan Dao (left) and Qi Ji Guang's Chang Dao (right). While superficially similar, Qi Ji Guang's Chang Dao has a one chi long bronze collar/secondary grip, which is not found on Chen Zong You's Dan Dao. Images taken from 'Dan Dao Fa Xuan (《單刀法選》)' and 'Muyedobotongji (《무예도보통지》 or 《武藝圖譜通志》)'.

Front (right) and back (left) view of Ai Pai, from sixteenth century military treatise 'Chou Hai Tu Bian (《籌海圖編》)'.

Ai Pai (挨牌 or 捱牌, lit. 'Leaning shield'), also came to be known as Gao Li Pai (高麗牌, lit. 'Goryeo shield' or 'Korean shield') during late Ming period for reasons unknown, was a large wooden shield made of poplar wood, measuring five chi long and one chi five cun to three chi wide.