The Great General Cannon of the Ming Dynasty

Bombard-type Great General Cannon (bottom right) and its various sub-types. Illustration taken from 'Si Zhen San Guan Zhi (《四鎮三關志》)'. 

The Great General Cannon, known in Chinese as Da Jiang Jun Pao (大將軍砲), stood as one of the Ming Dynasty’s most powerful indigenously developed artillery pieces. The name encompassed a class of heavy cannons that evolved over the dynasty's course, with several distinct types emerging as a result of both improvements to and evolution of the original design, and the introduction of new designs that gained popularity and adopted the same name.

The principal variants that emerged under this name are examined in the sections below:

1. Cast Bronze Great General Cannon (Bombard Type)

(Early to mid-Ming Dynasty — up to around 1584)

The bombard-type Great General Cannon was representative of the early and original variant of indigenous muzzle-loading cannon. It was typically made from cast bronze, though occasionally from cast iron, and featured a roughly bottle-shaped profile.

A cast-bronze bombard, probably a "Shorty General", preserved in Xuzhou Museum.

The cannon featured a nearly untapered profile and lacked a flared muzzle, with several reinforcing rings cast integrally along its length to strengthen the barrel against the pressures of firing, and optional lugs for lifting rings similarly cast as part of the barrel for easier handling and positioning. At the rear, a bulbous section served as an enlarged powder chamber. At the base was a flat, flared foot, which enabled the cannon to stand vertically for cleaning and reloading — a standard practice for Chinese muzzle-loaders, which were handled upright rather than horizontally.

A rare cast-iron version of the bombard-type Great General Cannon, preserved at Dingzhou Ancient City. Source

The bombard-type Great General Cannons were graded hierarchically using a typical numerical system: the largest and heaviest cannon was designated Da Jiang Jun (大將軍, lit. 'Great General'), followed by Er Jiang Jun (二將軍, lit. 'Secondary General') or Sai Jiang Jun (賽將軍, lit. 'Near-matching General'), then San Jiang Jun (三將軍, lit. 'Tertiary General') or Ai Jiang Jun (矮將軍, lit. 'Shorty General'), reflecting descending tiers of length, weight, calibre, and firepower within the class.

A cast-iron "Shorty General" bombard, preserved at Dingzhou Ancient City. Source

Regrettably, most surviving cast bronze bombard-type Great General Cannons are small to medium sized, whereas ironically a handful of large-sized cast iron examples have survived despite iron being rarer in this form. This difference likely stems from bronze being more valuable and more easily re-smelted or recycled than iron. Based on surviving examples, bombard-type Great General Cannons range from 50 cm to 180 cm in length, 35 kg to 600 kg in weight, and 6 cm to 25 cm in bore size, although written records mention some as long as 7 chi 2 cun (roughly 230 cm). Nevertheless, from the surviving cast-iron specimens, lengths around 170 cm and bore sizes around 20 cm appear typical for full-sized bombard-type Great General Cannons.

1.1 Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍)

(Around 1560 — early seventeenth century)

The Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍, lit. 'Invincible Great General') and its slightly smaller-bore naval/Southern China variant, the Wu Di Shen Fei Pao (無敵神飛砲, lit. 'Invincible Divine Flying Cannon'), represented a significant evolution from the original bombard-type Great General Cannon. These breech-loading designs drew direct inspiration from the Fo Lang Ji (佛朗機) guns — Portuguese-style breech-loaders that had spread from Europe to China in the early 16th century. Designed by the renowned Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光), the Wu Di Da Jiang Jun retained much of the original barrel profile but replaced the bulbous powder chamber with an open breech to accept detachable, mug-shaped loading chambers, sacrificing some raw firepower in exchange for markedly easier handling and a substantially higher rate of fire. These chambers were typically forged from wrought iron and fitted with reinforcing hoops for added strength.

Since upright reloading was no longer necessary, the flared foot of the original bombard-type Great General Cannon was removed or, in some cases, replaced with an additional lug for lifting ring similar to those sometimes fitted on other parts of the barrel.

A Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, from 'Lian Bing Shi Ji (《練兵實紀》)'.

To date, no surviving Ming cannon has been definitively identified as a Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, even though numerous breech-loading cannons from the period — including some exceedingly heavy pieces — have survived. As a result, its precise dimensions, bore size, and shot weight remain largely unknown. Written records, however, give an approximate barrel weight of roughly 1,000 jin (about 597 kg), a chamber weight of roughly 50–150 jin (about 30–90 kg), and a powder charge of 4–6 jin of gunpowder (about 2.4–3.6 kg) per shot, indicating that it was scaled to match the heaviest class of bombard-type Great General Cannons. Unlike the earlier muzzle-loading bombard-types, the Wu Di Da Jiang Jun typically fired hundreds of iron pellets as its primary ammunition, propelled with the aid of a wooden sabot; for naval combat, it could also employ a mixed load of a single stone cannonball combined with a reduced amount of iron pellets.

2. Forged Wrought Iron Great General Cannon

(Around 1584 — end of the Ming Dynasty)

Designed by military innovator Ye Meng Xiong (葉夢熊) around 1584, the wrought-iron Great General Cannon, also called Da Shen Pao (大神砲, lit. 'Great Divine Cannon') and Ye Gong Shen Chong (葉公神銃, lit. 'Lord Ye's Divine Gun'), was created by redesigning the wrought-iron loading chamber of the earlier Wu Di Da Jiang Jun into a single, full-length standalone cannon, adapting existing expertise in forging wrought-iron guns such as the Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲) to a significantly heavier artillery piece.

Wrought-iron type Great General Cannon displayed atop the Great Wall at Juyongguan Pass.

Constructed entirely from wrought iron, this type of Great General Cannon featured a nearly untapered profile and lacked a flared muzzle, though a reinforcing hoop protecting the muzzle created the subtle appearance of one. Its barrel was girded along its length by a series of forged wrought-iron hoops that could optionally incorporate trunnions, lifting rings, or simple iron sights — replacing the integrally cast reinforcing rings of earlier bombard-type designs — while the breech featured a distinctive abacus-bead-shaped enlargement that formed a reinforced powder chamber. The cannon retained its characteristic flared foot — now made slightly taller — to facilitate stable upright reloading, although it was now also designed for mounting on a gun carriage and could be loaded horizontally.

3D render of a wrought-iron type Great General Cannon mounted on a Ming-style gun carriage. From 《中国古代兵器大百科》.

Cannons of this type were graded hierarchically using characters from the Thousand Character Classic and the Yijing: the largest and most powerful was designated Tian Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (天字號大將軍), followed in descending order of size, calibre, and firepower by Di Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (地字號大將軍) and Xuan Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (玄字號大將軍). A fourth grade, called Ren Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (仁字號大將軍), also existed, which was seemingly comparable to Tian Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun. Far more examples of this type have survived than of the earlier bombard-type, making it the most representative variant of the Great General Cannon. Most surviving specimens measure between 110 cm and 195 cm in length, with bore diameters ranging from 8 cm to 14.5 cm and weights from 88.5 kg to 300 kg — though written records indicate that some reached as much as 600 kg. Many surviving examples are around 140–145 cm long, with bore diameters typically in the 11–12 cm range.

The wrought-iron Great General Cannon represented a revolution in indigenous Chinese artillery technology. Unlike Western wrought-iron guns, which were typically constructed using thin longitudinal iron staves bound together by shrunk-on hoops, Chinese wrought-iron cannons employed a fundamentally different forging method: multiple curved iron plates (either two or four per layer) were forge-welded together over a solid cylindrical mandrel to form an initial tube segment, with the seams slightly overlapped rather than butted edge-to-edge for added strength and better weld integrity. Additional layers of curved plates were then applied — seams carefully offset between successive layers — until the barrel reached the desired wall thickness. Multiple shorter tubes produced in this manner were subsequently forge-welded end-to-end to achieve the full desired barrel length, after which the assembled barrel was carefully cold-worked and ground to refine the bore, smooth the interior surface, and ensure uniformity, before reinforcing hoops were added.

Left: Boxted Bombard with visible inner stave seams. Right: A Great General Cannon preserved in Korea, brazenly arrogated as a Korean invention.

Compared to the Western hoop-and-stave method — which suffered from bore inconsistencies due to stave misalignment, long continuous longitudinal seams prone to splitting under pressure, risk of hoop failure over time, and uneven stress distribution that could cause sudden catastrophic bursting—the Chinese layered-plate approach produced a more monolithic, uniform, and resilient barrel with superior resistance to hoop stress and reduced risk of longitudinal failure, while also cutting down on overall weight compared to equivalent cast bronze or cast iron guns. Despite being called a “wrought-iron” gun, the metal used in forging the barrel of the Great General Cannon can actually be considered low-carbon steel; only the reinforcing hoops were true wrought iron. This enabled the wrought-iron Great General Cannon to deliver exceptional power for its weight: typical examples (with bore diameters around 11–12 cm) could be loaded with 1.2–1.5 kg of gunpowder per shot, propelling cannonballs weighing as much as 5 kg (roughly 11 pounder), although it was more typically loaded with a bore-matching lead or iron cannonball plus smaller grapeshot and lead/iron pellets to increase the total projectile weight, combining the penetrating power of the solid ball with the wider anti-personnel spread of the scatter load. In fact, it was later discovered that the cannon was so overbuilt that its reinforcing hoops weren't even needed and had become dead weight, leading to the development of a hoopless version called the Wei Yuan Pao (威遠砲).

2.1 Long-barrelled Great General Cannon

(Probably around 1620 — end of the Ming Dynasty)

For most of the Ming period, heavier Chinese artillery typically functioned as a superheavy regimental gun: lightweight and mobile, offering firepower comparable to a full-sized field piece, yet relatively short-barrelled and short-ranged. These cannons were deployed when the enemy breached the overlapping fields of fire from matchlocks, handgonnes, and lighter anti-personnel pieces, or served as a devastating close-range counter-charge weapon against advancing forces.

By the 17th century, however, the arrival of long-barrelled Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲) — European-style muzzle-loading smoothbore culverins (many of which also bore the title “Great General Cannon” but were not recognised as a distinct class under that name) — combined with the growing military threat posed by the rising Jurchen/Manchu forces, brought about a renewed emphasis on accurate long-range fire. This change was mirrored in native wrought-iron cannons, which increasingly adopted length-to-bore ratios approaching those of European designs. Regrettably, the Ming Dynasty fell before this evolution of wrought-iron cannons could fully mature, and as a result there were only a few surviving pieces of these later designs.

A late Ming period long-barrelled wrought iron cannon preserved at Shanxi Province Art Museum.

The long-barrelled wrought-iron cannon preserved at the Shanxi Province Art Museum (pictured above) is one of the few surviving pieces from the late Ming period. It measures 260 cm in length, with a barrel diameter of 20 cm and a bore of 9.5 cm, giving a bore-to-length ratio of approximately 27:1. It has an untapered low-carbon steel barrel reinforced with seven wrought-iron hoops, lacks the abacus-bead-shaped powder chamber found on earlier wrought-iron Great General Cannons, and has a flat wrought iron rear cap instead of the flared foot. The cannon is uninscribed, so its exact forging date and location are unknown. Due to this (and lacking some characterising features), it is uncertain whether it is truly a Great General Cannon or another type of Ming wrought-iron cannon, although it certainly has the firepower to match and a longer range than a standard wrought-iron Great General Cannon, and is treated as one by researchers.

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Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛郎機)

Note: This blog post was originally part of my Breech-loading Cannons of the Ming Dynasty article. However, I decided to split (and slightly modify) this section into its own separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Drawing of a Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji, its gun carriage, and three loading chambers. From Qing period 'Yi Hai Zhu Chen (《藝海珠塵》)'.

The Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛狼機, lit. 'Hundred-bullet Fo Lang Ji') was an advanced variant of the heavier type of Fo Lang Ji breech-loading cannon designed by Ming firearms specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), who made several key improvements to the weapon. Namely, Zhao Shi Zhen lengthened and reinforced the gun barrel and mounted it on a wooden tiller, while also designing a wheeled gun carriage for the weapon.

The design of the wheeled gun carriage was where Zhao Shi Zhen truly demonstrated his genius. The unique gun carriage was of two-wheeled design (though the wheels were detached prior to firing), equipped with four swing-down stands, paired thills at the rear, along with two L-shaped anchoring irons at the front that anchored the carriage to the ground to counteract recoil.

In addition, Zhao Shizhen also fitted an iron bucket densely packed with cotton at the rear of the gun carriage to act as a recoil absorber, and replaced the deck planks of the gun carriage with wooden conveyor rollers, so that upon firing, the cannon slid rearward along the rollers against the bucket, compressing the cotton buffer to dampen the recoil—in essence, he had invented an early form of sliding recoil mechanism in the early 17th century.

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Lian Zhu Pao (連珠砲) and Yu Gu Pao (漁皷砲)

Drawing of a Lian Zhu Pao (right) and Yu Gu Pao (left), from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Lian Zhu Pao (連珠砲, lit. 'Rapid bead cannon') and Yu Gu Pao (漁皷砲, lit. 'Fisherman's drum cannon') were two types of lightweight cannons commonly used by Ming border armies of the strategically important San Bian (三邊, lit. 'Three borders') of Shaanxi Province, namely Gansu Defence Region (甘肅鎮), Yansui Defence Region (延綏鎮), Ningxia Defence Region (寧夏鎮), as well as the main headquarters, Guyuan Defence Region (固原鎮).

The two cannons were more or less identical, except for the lack of reinforcing hoops in Yu Gu Pao. Both cannons were around three chi in length, six fen in barrel thickness, and had a bore diameter of around one cun one fen (1.4 in / 35.2 mm). Designed to be carriable by just one person, these cannons could either launch a single one cun diameter lead cannonball at considerable distance using five to six liang of gunpowder, or loaded with additional lead or iron pellets for close range scatter shot.

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Hu Wei Chong (虎尾銃)

Drawing of two Hu Wei Chong mounted on a double-ended stand, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

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Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng (鉛彈一窩蜂)

Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng (鉛彈一窩蜂)

Drawing of Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng in shoulder bag for transportation (top right), and the same cannon when deployed (top bottom), from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng was a portable anti-personnel cannon that entered Ming arsenal in the early to mid-sixteenth century. Forged with the same method as a matchlock gun barrel, Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng had a short but wide body that could be loaded with up to 100 lead bullets, yet was light enough to be carried by a single person. It also came with a small iron bipod, which was used to prop up the muzzle when the cannon was staked to the ground for firing, as it had little to no extra weight to offset its considerable recoil.

Qian Dan Yi Wo Feng was also known as Bai Zi Chong (百子銃, lit. 'Hundred bullets gun'), although it should not to be confused with another weapon of the same name. It may also be the predecessor of Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲).

Volley gun version

Drawing of a matchlock volley gun Yi Wo Feng, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

This version of Yi Wo Feng, though still called by the same name, was only inspired by but not directly related to the anti-personnel cannon above. It was actually a matchlock volley gun that consisted of four to six gun barrels recycled from damaged matchlock guns, modified and bundled together and mounted on a wooden receiver that also housed a matchlock mechanism and a handle bar. The volley gun was mounted on a tripod-like gun mount that allowed the gun to be freely traversed and elevated, and each of its gun barrels was loaded with four lead bullets.

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Di Lei Lian Pao (地雷連砲) and Xun Lei Pao (迅雷砲)

Di Lei Lian Pao (地雷連砲, lit. 'Ground thunder rapid cannon')

Drawing of three soldiers firing three Di Lei Lian Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Di Lei Lian Pao was a small volley gun that consisted of 10 small cannons brazed to a solid iron stock in a fan shape. Originated from Shaanxi (陝西) region of Northwest China, Di Lei Lian Pao was a very lightweight weapon weighing only twenty jin (11.8 kg or 26 lbs) which allowed the weapon to be easily deployed and transported without a wheeled gun carriage—an important feature allowing the weapon to be used more effectively against fast-paced Mongol horsemen. Despite being a volley gun that fired its shots in a spread, Di Lei Lian Pao was still fitted with an iron sight.

To prevent the huge recoil generated by all ten barrels firing simultaneously from throwing off such a light weapon, potentially even hurting its user, the iron stock of Di Lei Lian Pao had an integrated ring that allowed the weapon to be staked to the ground during use.

Drawing of one soldier firing multiple Di Lei Lian Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Di Lei Lian Pao was originally a tripwire gun that uses Gang Lun Fa Huo (鋼輪發火) as its triggering mechanism (hence 'Di Lei [地雷]' in its name), although this was later changed to having a gunner to manually fire the volley gun, as this was found to be much more convenient and responsive.

Di Lei Lian Pao utilised a two-stage fuse, which consisted of a very short section of normal fuse (i.e. Chinese paper fuse), known as Zou Xian (走線, lit. 'Walking thread'), connecting to a much longer section of flat quickmatch fuse, known as Bian Xian (扁線, lit. 'Flat thread') that extended all the way to the touch hole of the volley gun. The use of long fuse to ignite Di Lei Lian Pao allowed the gunner to stand at a safe distance from the weapon, as well as for a single gunner to operate multiple guns by himself.

Xun Lei Pao (迅雷砲, lit. 'Quick thunder cannon')

Drawing of a Xun Lei Pao, from 'Li Qi Jie (《利器解》)'.

Xun Lei Pao was basically a larger, lighter, more powerful, but single shot version of Di Lei Lian Pao. It was a small iron cannon weighing only 10 jin (6 kg or 13 lbs) and came with a slightly flared muzzle, front and back iron sight, as well as an extended solid portion behind the cannon breach with a hole punched through it to allow the cannon to be staked to the ground during use much like its multi-shot counterpart.

Xun Lei Pao should not to be confused with Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃), a weapon with similar name.

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Bai Zi Chong (百子銃)

Bai Zi Chong (百子銃, lit. 'Hundred bullet gun')

Late Ming Bai Zi Chong discovered at an ancient battle site in Sichuan.

Bai Zi Chong, also known as Bai Zi Lian Zhu Pao (百子連珠砲, lit. 'Hundred bullet rapid fire cannon'), was the Chinese name for a muzzle-loading swivel gun. Prized for its wide arc of fire and accuracy, the Bai Zi Chong served primarily as shipborne anti-personnel ordnance and in siege defence.

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Sai Gong Chong (賽熕銃)

A Sai Gong Chong and its ramrod, from 'Bing Lu (《兵錄》)'.

Sai Gong Chong (賽熕銃 or 賽貢銃, lit. 'Gun that can match a Fa Gong') was another cannon designed by Ming general Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光). It was a three chi long muzzle-loading cannon, usually loaded with one lead cannonball weighing half jin, a departure from the standard practise of using multiple smaller shots in most Ming artillery.

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Wei Yuan Pao (威遠砲)

UPDATED APRIL 17, 2026

Illustration of a large (left) and small (right) Wei Yuan Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'

The Wei Yuan Pao (威遠砲, lit. "Awe-inspiring long range cannon") was essentially a stripped-down version of the wrought-iron Da Jiang Jun Pao (大將軍砲), developed during the late Ming period, probably around 1600. It discarded the cumbersome reinforcing hoops of the Great General Cannon, as it became clear through experience that the latter's advanced wrought-iron construction was already significantly overbuilt for the required size, weight, and firepower, making the reinforcing hoops unnecessary dead weight that only hindered handling and mobility.

The Wei Yuan Pao retained the general profile of the Great General Cannon, including the flared foot for vertical cleaning and reloading and abacus bead-shaped powder chamber. Unlike its predecessor, however, it featured a slightly flared muzzle, an iron sight similar to that of matchlock gun, and a touch hole lid similar to the type commonly found on Shen Qiang (神鎗).

A Wei Yuan Pao in the China Great Wall Museum, Badaling, China. Note the absence of reinforcing hoops. Source: Zhihu.

According to late Ming military treatise Li Qi Jie (《利器解》), the Wei Yuan Pao was produced in two sizes. The lighter version measured approximately 2 chi 8 cun (90 cm) in length and weighed 120 jin (71 kg), with a bore diameter of roughly 2 cun 2 fen (7 cm) at the muzzle and a bore length of 2 chi 3 cun (74 cm), giving a rough calibre (bore length to bore diameter ratio) of about 10.5. It was loaded with 8 liang (296 g) of gunpowder and fired a large iron-cored lead ball weighing 3 jin 6 liang (2 kg or 4.6 lb) along with one hundred 6 qian (22 g) lead bullets. Due to its light weight, it could be easily carried by a horse or mule. 

The heavier variant followed the same general proportions for length, bore length, and calibre, but was scaled up in weight to 200 jin (118 kg), with an estimated bore diameter of approximately 2.6–2.7 cun (8.3–8.6 cm). It was loaded with 1 jin (590 g) of gunpowder and fired a 6 jin (3.5 kg or 7.8 lb) iron-cored lead ball.

While other contemporary Ming military texts record slight variations in these dimensions and specifications, some recommending a powder charge of up to 1 jin 4 liang (740 g) for the lighter version — a remarkably heavy charge for such a light piece, made possible only by its robust wrought-iron construction — the general characteristics of the Wei Yuan Pao remained fairly consistent across sources.

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Interesting comparison between different warships of the Far East in the sixteenth and seventeenth century

I came across this interesting comparison at Baidu Tieba, although the original post has since been deleted. The original comparison is a simple table written entirely in Chinese, so I translated the table to English and added a few commentaries.

Weight of Cannon (lbs)*	<500	500	1000	1500	2000	3000	4000>
Sixteenth Century Portuguese Galley	34+
Ming Dynasty Feng Zhou (early)	30+
Ming Dynasty Feng Zhou (late)	14+
Mark 1 Warship of Qi Ji Guang's fleet (early)	9+	1
Mark 1 Warship of Qi Ji Guang's fleet (late)	14+		2
Tekkōsen	48 – 70	3
Geobukseon**	20 – 30+
Advanced Ming Dynasty War Junk	30+	14 – 22				6 – 8
Koxinga-era Gong Chuan	100 – 200+	20+					1
Dutch Hired Vessel 'Graaf Hendrik'	?	?	8	10	8	8	2
Mông Đồng							1 – 2

* Although weight of shot is a more reliable measure of firepower, Chinese records seldom mention them. Chinese gunners also frequently loaded their guns with multiple smaller shots in addition to the main shot (which made them less powerful), making measurement purely by weight of shot very misleading.

** This assume a late variant of Geobukseon/Turtle ship with significantly improved armaments, due to the fact that very little is known about the early, Imjin War-era Geobukseon.

Feng Zhou (封舟, lit. 'Investiture ship')

A Qing Dynasty Feng Zhou, from 'Ce Feng Liu Qiu Tu (《冊封琉球圖》)'.

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Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲)

A Hu Dun Pao in remarkable preservation condition.

Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲, lit. 'Tiger crouching cannon') was a type of iron cannon widely used by the Ming army. It was perhaps the weapon that best represents the Chinese artillery doctrine of the Ming period.

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Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲) and Xi Yang Pao (西洋砲)

Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲, lit. 'Red barbarian cannon') and Xi Yang Pao (西洋砲, lit. 'Western Ocean cannon') are Chinese names for sixteenth and seventeenth century European cast iron and cast bronze cannon, respectively. Despite being named after the Dutch, known as Hong Yi (紅夷, lit. 'Red barbarian') or Hong Mao Yi (紅毛夷, lit.'Red-haired barbarian') by the Chinese, European cannons actually came from multiple sources, including British, Portuguese and Spanish.

By seventeenth century, European-style cannons became the heaviest and most advanced weaponry in the Ming arsenal, and had largely superseded local designs.

Early adoption of European artillery

Three types of European artillery adopted by the Chinese. Top left: Fa Gong. Top right: Fo Lang Ji. Bottom: Hong Yi Pao. From 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'.

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Fa Gong (發熕)

Drawing of a bronze Fa Gong on a European-style naval carriage, from 'Chou Hai Tu Bian (《籌海圖編》)'.

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Breech-loading cannons of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MAY 7, 2022, minor update DECEMBER 31, 2025

Large Fo Lang Ji from the Nanjing City Wall Museum.

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機, lit. 'Frankish engine'), named after the Chinese name for Portuguese people (itself a Chinese transcription of related terms farang/farangi/ferenggi, used in the Muslim world to refer to White Europeans), was the Chinese version of breech-loading swivel gun, which they reverse-engineered from the Portuguese. 

Fo Lang Ji actually entered Chinese arsenal surprisingly early—the weapon came to the attention of the Ming court in October 1517, after a translator working on a Portuguese ship (likely a part of Fernão Pires de Andrade's fleet, which visited China in the same year) gifted a cannon and gunpowder formula to Gu Ying Xiang (顧應祥) during an anti-piracy operation. However, Imperial prince Zhu Chen Hao (朱宸濠) already manufactured some Fo Lang Ji in secret as early as May 1517 in preparation for his rebellion two years later, suggesting that the general populace may have learnt of this weapon well before the Ming court. In any case, after Sino-Portuguese relations turned sour, Ming navy sent to evict the Portuguese from Guangdong quickly found itself at the receiving end of this devastating weapon during Battle of Tunmen in 1521. In the ensuing blockade, Deputy Marine Commissioner (海道副使) Wang Hong (汪鋐), through military inspector He Ru (何儒) acting as an undercover agent, successfully enticed two Chinese sailors working for the Portuguese to defect. With the technical know-how acquired from these defectors, Wang Hong successfully reverse-engineered the Fo Lang Ji in a little under 40 days, then proceeded to use the new weapon to defeat the Portuguese. 

After the conflict, Wang Hong became a fervent advocate of the Fo Lang Ji and wrote several memorials to the throne to promote the weapon. In 1523, Beijing arsenal began to manufacture the Fo Lang Ji on an official basis, soon followed by Nanjing arsenal in 1524. By 1529, a mere seven years after the initial production run, virtually the entire country had been equipped with this new weapon. The Fo Lang Ji quickly supplanted older Chinese cannons and became the most important artillery piece in the Ming arsenal. 

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機)

A standard Fo Lang Ji swivel gun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

While the basic design of Fo Lang Ji was virtually unchanged from its Portuguese predecessor, Chinese gunsmiths created a great number of variant designs of nearly every size, power, and platform imaginable, ranging from downsized handheld guns, to standard-sized models mounted on small gun carriages or saddle frames similar to zamburak, to heavier piece mounted on war carts, warships and gun emplacements.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji (鷹爪佛狼機, lit. 'Eagle talon Frankish engine')

Drawing of a Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji was simply a small Fo Lang Ji mounted on a three chi tall iron spiked tripod (which gave the weapon its name).

Fei Shan Shen Pao (飛山神砲, lit. 'Flying mountain divine cannon')

Drawing of a Fei Shan Shen Pao, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》'.

Fei Shan Shen Pao was a medium-weight Fo Lang Ji with two pair of trunnions.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍, lit. 'Invincible great general')

Drawing of a Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was a heavy breech-loading cannon primarily designed for close range anti-personnel purpose. A single blast from this cannon could rain death over a very large area in a manner not unlike a giant shotgun—each of its three chambers were loaded with one heavy stone ball and a whopping 365 iron pellets—although the stone ball was still capable of pulverising walls and buildings.

Weighing one thousand and fifty jin (619.5 kg or 1,366 lbs), Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was one of the heaviest cannons in Ming arsenal until the advent of Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲). Regrettably, while it was undoubtedly devastating, Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was actually slightly underpowered for a cannon of this size due to its breech-loading nature, relatively short barrel, and the fact that its projectile weight and black powder load were limited by the size of its chamber. These shortcomings eventually led to the development of lighter and more powerful Ye Gong Shen Chong (葉公神銃).

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao (無敵神飛砲, lit. 'Invincible divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, sometimes shortened to Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon'), was a slightly shortened naval variant of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun. Each of its three chambers were loaded with a heavy stone ball and 200 iron pellets, although iron pellets were sometimes omitted to increase the power of stone ball.

Like its land-bound counterpart, Wu Di Shen Fei Pao was the heaviest naval artillery available to Ming navy until the advent of Hong Yi Pao.

Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Shen Fei Pao, from 'Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)'.

Recorded in seventeenth century military treatise Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)', Shen Fei Pao appears to be a streamlined and more powerful version of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, lacking the iron rings used for lifting the cannon found on Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, but came with gunsight-equipped, wrought iron chambers.

The largest "Mark 1" Shen Fei Pao was 8 chi (256 cm or 8'5") in length and 1,000 jin (590 kg or 1300 lbs) in weight. Its five chambers were 1 chi 5 cun (48 cm or 1'7") in length, 80 jin (47.2 kg or 104 lbs) in weight, and had a bore size of 7 cun (22.4 cm or 8.8"). They were typically loaded with either a heavy 25 jin (14.75 kg or 32.5 lbs) stone ball, or 200 stone pellets plus 500 iron pellets (but not both at the same time unlike Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao), propelled by 5 jin (2.95 kg or 6.5 lbs) of black powder.

Other variants

There were also many known models of Fo Lang Ji without accompanying illustrations. Examples include Ma Shang Fo Lang Ji (馬上佛郎機, lit. 'Horseman's Frankish engine') designed to be used on horseback, Lian Zhu Fo Lang Ji Pao (連珠佛朗機砲, lit. 'Rapid fire Frankish engine'), an iron double-ended Fo Lang Ji with shortened barrels, as well as Liu Xing Pao (流星砲, lit. 'Shooting star cannon'), a type of brass Fo Lang Ji with rectangular-shaped open breech and lengthened barrel.

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