Ying Chuan (鷹船)

Note: This blog post was originally part of my Sha Chuan (沙船) article. However, after updating that article with additional information, I decided to separate this content into its own article.

Drawing of a Ying Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The Ying Chuan (鹰船, lit. 'Eagle ship') was an unusual riverine warship that emerged from the shipyards around the estuary of the Yangtze River. Converted from a type of civilian ship known as Shuang Ta Chuan (雙塔船, lit. 'Double tower ship', Shuang Ta was the old name of Shangtazhen), differing in that Shuang Ta Chuan used yuloh whereas Ying Chuan used oars, it rose to prominence during Jia Jing Da Wo Kou (嘉靖大倭寇) period due to its utility in defending inland waterways against Wokou vessels that slipped pass larger naval warships like Fu Chuan (福船), with its use quickly spreading to Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang

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Feng Zhou Zhan Jian (封舟戰艦) — The Ming ironclad

Illustration of a Qing period Feng Zhou, from 'Zhong Shan Chuan Xin Lu (《中山傳信錄》)'. It should be noted that Ming period Feng Zhou, above all the ironclad warship, likely looked very different from this illustration.

The so-called Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was a type of large warship built in 1568~1569 to counter the Wu Wei Chuan (烏尾船) of notorious Chinese pirate lord Zeng Yi Ben (曾一本) (Note: article available to my Supporter-tier patrons only), who had long terrorised the coasts of Guangdong Province and had outright defeated Ming navy on several occasions. 

Though unique in its kind, this formidable warships actually did not have a proper name to call its own, as it was simply referred to as "giant warship" in historical sources. It was only dubbed 'Feng Zhou Zhan Jian (封舟戰艦, lit. 'Investiture war ship') in popular discourse out of convenience, due to the fact that the warship was specifically constructed to the same size and/or quality standard as Feng Zhou (封舟, lit. 'Investiture ship'), ocean-going sailing ship specifically built for Imperial Chinese investiture missions to Ryukyu Kingdom. Despite the misleading moniker, Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was purpose-built from the ground up for war, rather than converted from existing investiture ship.

Size and construction

Information about Feng Zhou Zhan Jian's dimensions and design is very incomplete, as no known blueprints or other design documents of the ship exist. From the few descriptions that survived, it's known that Feng Zhou Zhan Jian had a beam of 4 zhang (roughly 12.52 m or 41.08 ft), and it was known to be fitted with masts of 17~18 zhang (roughly 53.21~56.34 m or 174.57~184.84 ft) in height. Thus, it can be inferred with high confidence that a Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was approximately 53~56 m/174~184 ft long with a beam of approximately 12.5 m/41 ft (Chinese junks are generally as long as their mainmasts are tall), which was roughly comparable to HMS Victory, and in line with known sizes of (non-combat) Ryukyu investiture ships of the time.

Since Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was built in Fujian, it most likely took the form of an oversized Fu Chuan (福船), i.e. a sailing war junk with a prominent multi-storey aftercastle, fully enclosed superstructure above its main deck, as well as protective bamboo palisade around the deck and the roof of the superstructure. Likewise, it was most likely built from Chinese fir, pine and camphor wood like its lesser cousins. At least some Feng Zhou Zhan Jian had two-layered bottom planking, in keeping with the standard practice of building Ryukyu investiture ship.

The masts of Feng Zhou Zhan Jian were constructed from joining together multiple pieces of timbers and reinforcing them with iron hoops, in part due to difficulties in sourcing enough tree logs of sufficient length for such a large ship. For sails, Feng Zhou Zhan Jian employed junk sailing rig with sails made of bamboo mat backed by thick sailcloth, which were quite different from rolled bamboo mat sails used by most other Fujian warships at the time. 

Perhaps the most interesting feature of Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was the iron reinforcement around its hull, which consisted of more than forty large iron bands running vertically from the keel to the gunwales, forming an external iron skeletal frame. This feature was already present on some Ryukyu investiture ships to improve hull integrity during long voyage, although for warship the amount of iron bands more than doubled (normal investiture ship only had twenty iron bands) as they now served as armour against ramming as well—a necessary precaution against Guang Chuan (廣船) built with significantly sturdier woods than ships built in Fujian.

Armaments

While Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was noted to be heavily stocked up with firearms in period sources, all but a handful of its armaments remain unknowable due to incomplete records. Only three weapons were confirmed to be equipped by Feng Zhou Zhan Jian, namely wooden Fa Gong (發熕), Pai Gan (拍竿), as well as Zhuang Liang (撞樑) for lateral ramming. However, based on inference from historical documents about war preparation against Zeng Yi Ben, it's almost certain that Feng Zhou Zhan Jian was also equipped with normal (i.e. metal) Fa Gong, Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機) and Bai Zi Chong (百子銃), iron-cased Peng Tong (噴筒) and rockets, as well as an assortment of handheld naval weapons for its crews including matchlock guns, grenades, javelins, bows and arrows, swords and shields, as well as spears.

On top of that, based on better-preserved records about diplomatic missions to Ryukyu, it is known that a contemporary Ryukyu investiture ship would be armed with 20 Fo Lang Ji, 10 Wan Kou Chong (碗口銃), 60 Xiu Chong (袖銃, lit. 'Sleeve gun'), 100 arquebuses, 1,000 javelins, 60 spears, 300 sabres, 100 rattan shields, 100 iron helmets, and 100 iron armours. It can be safely presumed that Feng Zhou Zhan Jian would be at least armed to a comparable standard as its diplomatic counterpart, if not better.

Given the time period and possible armaments of Feng Zhou Zhan Jian, it is clear that the warship wasn't designed with Age of Sail-style artillery broadside or line-of-battle tactic in mind. Instead, Feng Zhou Zhan Jian likely fought with more traditional tactics, namely using its considerable anti-personnel firepower to kill and suppress enemy ship crews, flamethrowers and rockets to set fire to enemy rigging, as well as ramming and boarding. While it did carry heavier Fa Gong, probably mounted as chase gun, that could inflict damage on enemy vessel directly, such role was generally given to smaller and more agile oared vessels in the Ming navy.

 

Crew

Feng Zhou Zhan Jian had a crew of 224, which consisted of a Bu Dao (捕盜, lit. 'Thief-catcher', this was the name for a warship's captain during Ming period), 3 Duo Shou (舵手, helmsman) and 220 sailors and soldiers. Other crew positions on the ship included Liao Ding Shou (繚椗手, sail and anchor operator), Zhao Dou Shou (招斗手, solider stationed to crow's nest or fighting top), Fa Gong gunner, Fo Lang Ji gunner, arquebusier, rocketeer, Pen Tong operator, shielded javelin thrower, archer and spearman, although regrettably it's unknown how many crews were assigned to each position.

Interestingly, for such a huge warship Feng Zhou Zhan Jian had a relatively small crew contingent.

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Classical oared warships of pre-modern Chinese navies

Artistic impression of the epic spectacle of Battle of Red Cliff, erroneously depicting the iconic junk rig, which probably hadn't been invented during Three Kingdoms period.

For the most part, the appearance and designs of Chinese oared warships is still a matter of debate and conjecture, as to date no Chinese oared warship of any kind has been found. Information about Chinese oared warships has to be gleaned from studying written records, crude woodblock prints of military treatises, as well as shipwrecks of civilian vessels and ocean-going junks. Still, there is still much unknown about Chinese oared warships, and hopefully future archaeological finds can shed more light on this subject.

Common types of Chinese oared warships

The list of warships below is mainly taken from Tang period military treatise Tai Bai Yin Jing (《太白陰經》), as well as Song period military treatise Wu Jing Zong Yao (《武經總要》) that referenced the former. Although some warships included in the list like Lou Chuan and Meng Chong have remained a staple of pre-modern Chinese navies for centuries, the list probably only reflects the inventory of eighth century Chinese navy but not any other periods. In fact, there are perhaps dozens if not more Chinese oared warships found in written records that did not conform to any of the listed classes.

Lou Chuan (樓船, lit. 'Tower ship')

Illustration of a Lou Chuan, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

Lou Chuan was the greatest of the mainline combat vessels, often serving as the flagship or centrepiece of ancient Chinese navies. A formidable warship both at range and up close, Lou Chuan was installed with crenellated bulwark as well as a three-storey (or more) tall, felt/rawhide-covered wooden superstructure, complete with battlements and assorted arrow loops and spear-holes. Thanks to its enormous size, it was capable of mounting shipborne artillery and other heavier equipment, including traction trebuchets, furnaces of molten iron, heavy rocks and naphtha flamethrowers.

For all its impressive power, Lou Chuan was not without drawbacks, as the warship's enormous size and high centre of gravity made it particularly difficult to handle during rough weather and high winds.

Meng Chong (蒙衝)

Illustration of a Meng Chong, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

Meng Chong was an interesting warship that seems to went through numerous iterations over the ages, resulting in a number of wildly different warships all sharing the same name. First mentioned in Eastern Han period dictionary Shi Ming (《釋名》), Meng Chong in its earliest iteration was simply described as a ship with long and slender hull specialised in launching assault or perhaps ram enemy vessel, without any reference to size. Nevertheless, it can be ascertained that at least by late Eastern Han period, Meng Chong had grown into enormous juggernaut capable of carrying hundreds of combatants, to the point that its name effectively became a metonymy for big and formidable warship.

During Three Kingdoms period, Meng Chong superseded Lou Chuan of the Han Dynasty to become one of the mainline combat vessels of Eastern Wu navy alongside the then newly introduced Dou Jian, possibly due to Eastern Wu's prior bad experience with Lou Chuan capsizing during storm. Though still fairly large, Eastern Wu's Meng Chong appeared to be more sensibly sized and retained respectable speed, as several Meng Chong were converted to fire ships during the famous Battle of Red Cliffs.

Nevertheless, a new Meng Chong came into prominence during Eastern Jin period. Rather than a metonymy, the new Meng Chong was a distinct class of warship, small and agile and came with a fully enclosed hull covered in felt and rawhide. Though well-protected and equipped with numerous arrow-loops and spear-holes, this Meng Chong was probably too small to be of any real use during a serious boarding action (a Tang period example only had a crew of thirty-two oarsmen and twenty-five marines), and thus it was not considered a mainline combat vessel. On the flip side, the small warship was well-suited for launching unconventional attacks, either swarming enemy vessels and harassing them with arrows, or ramming and delivering incendiary weapons at point-blank range. To this end, it was often equipped with disproportionately heavy or devastating weapons, such as heavy multiprod siege crossbows or molten iron.

Curiously, both types of Meng Chong appeared to coexist for a long time, at least until the small Meng Chong was eventually phased out (although its role was later taken up by other types of warships).

Dou Jian (鬥艦, lit. 'Fighting ship')

Illustration of a Dou Jian, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

Dou Jian, less commonly known as Zhan Jian (戰艦, lit. 'Battle ship'), was a mainline combat vessel first introduced during Three Kingdoms period. A fairly large warship (although generally smaller than Lou Chuan), Dou Jian was also installed with crenellated bulwark, although it only had a elevated fighting platform called Lou Peng (樓棚, lit. 'Shed', although hoarding is a more apt translation) in place of the fortified superstructure of Lou Chuan.

Based on written descriptions, the fighting platform of Dou Jian appeared somewhat similar to balai platform commonly found on later period Nusantaran warships such as Ghali, in that they were both fully open structures with a flat roof serving as fighting platform. Nevertheless, whereas balai left all soldiers on the platform completely exposed to facilitate boarding action, Lou Peng's roof was well-protected by a battlement, making it more useful as a missile platform.

Interestingly, most illustrations of Dou Jian in Chinese military treatises depict the ship with a fully enclosed, one-storey tower with battlemented roof. While It is likely that some Dou Jian were indeed built as "one-storey Lou Chuan", another plausible explanation is that the base level of Lou Peng was only enclosed with large shields or free-standing wooden panels similar to Chinese-style hoarding.

Zou Ge (走舸, lit. 'Walking ship')

Illustration of a Zou Ge, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

Zou Ge was the smallest of the mainline combat vessels of ancient Chinese navies. Like its larger cousins, Zou Ge was also installed with crenellated bulwark to protect its passengers, but did not have any superstructure built on its main deck. Zou Ge was specifically designed for speed and maneuverability, and was generally assigned more oarsmen than marines, although these tend to be veterans and elites. Small enough to be towed into battle behind a larger ship, Zou Ge served a role akin to cavalry or elite reserve force in a land army, either launching decisive flanking attack after a battle was already joined (i.e. when two lines of warships clashed and engaged in boarding action), or reinforcing weak points in the battleline.

Hai Hu (海鶻, lit. 'Sea hawk or sea grebe')

Illustration of a Hai Hu, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

A relatively late addition first introduced during Tang period, Hai Hu was a mainline combat ship designed for rough water conditions that might give troubles to other warships. It had a specifically adapted hull with narrow bow and low sheer forward and wide stern with high sheer aft, as well as equipped with a pair of Fu Bang (浮板, lit. 'Floating plank'), or leeboards. These features suggest that Hai Hu was designed with heavy emphasis of stability in mind.

Like all combat vessels, Hai Hu was also installed with crenellated bulwark, although its was made of thick cowhide instead of wood. The ship was otherwise outfitted as a Dou Jian (see above).

You Ting (遊艇, lit. 'Wandering boat')

Illustration of a You Ting, from 'Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng (《古今圖書集成》)'.

You Ting was a small, fast boat used by ancient Chinese navies for scouting and relaying command between larger ships. As scouting vessel, You Ting lacked a crenellated bulwark, and was only minimally armed.

Curiously, some illustrations depict the boat being propelled by ordinary oars (pictured above), while others show the boat propelled by yuloh.

Distinguishing features of Chinese oared warship

Even though Chinese oared warships varied greatly in size, shape, and role, there were many elements generally shared across most Chinese oared warships. These distinguishing features not only set them apart from other oared warships, but also reflect the long naval and shipbuilding traditions, unique military history and approaches to warfare, as well as technological sophistication of ancient China.

Junk hull

Though larger and far more sophisticated, the hull of Chinese oared warship probably grew out of ancient sampan (舢舨), and still had much in common with its smaller cousin such as the stereotypical "three board" (i.e. a flat bottom, port and starboard) hull layout, flat bow and transom, as well as prominent "stern horns" to name but a few. Primarily designed for riverine warfare, particularly on Yangtze River, Chinese oared warships were generally keelless, although some later period oared warships designed to operate in the sea had a keel. Virtually all Chinese warships were fully decked.

Close-up photo of Han Dynasty shipwreck "Silk Road No. 1", showing its mortise and tenon planking.

Chinese shipwrights favoured a sturdy locked mortise-and-tenon planking technique, of which wooden planks were joined together with mortise and tenon, then locked in place by bamboo or wooden dowels, which were replaced by iron nails, staples and bolts during later period. Chinese shipwrights also developed multi-layered planking in the Song Dynasty, which improved ship durability immensely. Archaeological finds reveal that Yuan river junks could have up to two layers of bottom planking, whereas Song and Yuan period ocean-going junks manufactured in Fujian also had additional layers of hull planking, with one notable find having as many as six layers of hull planking.

Chinese ships were originally built shell-first, although shipwrights were quick to figure out a unique frame-first shipbuilding method called Chuan Ke Fa (船殼法, lit. 'Ship-shell method/hull method') after the invention of watertight bulkhead, as it was much easier to lay down watertight bulkheads first and then install planking around them, than vice versa.

The incredible robustness of junk hull, combined with watertight bulkhead technology (see below), permitted Chinese shipwrights to construct warships of incredible size. In fact, it was not unusual for large warships to carry a crew of nearly a thousand.

Shipbuilding and caulking material

Thanks to the vast geographical reach of China, Chinese ships were built from a huge variety of woods—a fact used by archaeologists to distinguish Chinese shipwrecks from shipwrecks of foreign visitors (Korean ships, for example, were nearly exclusively built from red pine). Most shipbuilding manerials were locally sourced, although foreign imports played a supplementary but increasingly important role since Yuan period. Common Chinese shipbuilding materials included Chinese fir, Chinese red pine, mulberry, champor, sandalwood, zelkova, Chinese elm, Chinese jujube, Chinese bean tree, Japanese pagoda tree, champor, lychee, castanopsis, Erythrophleum fordii, nanmu and many more, although Chinese fir remained the most dominant shipbuilding wood. Generally, load-bearing parts and equipment that must be subjected to constant wear and tear, such as anchor and rudder, were made of more durable woods like elm and Japanese emperor oak, as well as imported wood such as teak, sal wood and Ceylon ironwood.

Chinese shipwrights also developed a unique and highly effective caulking material dubbed "Chu-nam putty". It was a mixture of oakum or bamboo fibres, limestone or shell lime, as well as tung oil.

Watertight bulkhead

A Chinese junk ship under construction, with very visible watertight bulkheads. Photo credit © Huang Liang, 2007.

Watertight bulkhead technology was a significant Chinese invention that greatly enhanced the survivability of Chinese ships. Bulkheads not only provided lateral structural strength to the hull, but also partitioned the hull into multiple watertight compartments, thus preventing a breach to one section of the hull from causing flooding to the entire ship.

So far the earliest archaeological find of watertight bulkhead dates to Tang period, although written records suggest that the technology may have existed as early as fifth century AD. The earliest ship that may have been equipped with watertight bulkhead was a type of four-storey Lou Chuan called Ba Cao Jian (八槽艦, lit. 'Eight trough warship') built by Eastern Jin rebel Lu Xun (盧循). The warship was probably so named from the close resemblance of its compartmentalised hull to a feeding trough.

Sternpost-mounted "true" rudder

Illustration of a Lou Chuan with its rudder highlighted. From 'Wu Jing Zong Yao (《武經總要》)'.

Rudder was another important Chinese invention that greatly simplified the steering of the ship, and offered far better control, responsiveness, efficiency and stability than steering oar. Early adoption of true rudder gave Chinese warships unprecedented maneuverability, and allowed Chinese shipwrights to construct huge, heavily built vessels without sacrificing steerability.

Mast tabernacle

Most oared vessels were equipped with supplementary sails for long distance travel, and Chinese oared ships were no exception. For fighting vessels, sails, masts and rigging had to be stripped away and left ashore when a battle was imminent to minimise their interference with ship-to-ship combat. Unfortunately, this posed a problem when no friendly port to safe keep the rigging was available, to say nothing about the hurdles of dismantling and storing large amount of masts and rigging. Many an oared warship had to make do with furled sail but upright mast in battle due to lack of friendly port or time.

Illustration of a Lou Chuan with its laid down mast highlighted. From 'Wu Jing Zong Yao (《武經總要》)'.

During Song period, Chinese shipwrights invented mast tabernacle that allowed a mast to be laid down and secured horizontally when not in use. Primarily designed to protect the mast during extreme weather (such as violent winds breaking the mast), the innovative design also allowed Chinese ships to sail under bridge and warships to sprang into combat-ready state in a much shorter time.

Chinese shipwrights taught mast tabernacle technology to their Korean counterparts in the eleventh century. Hence, similar mast design can be seen on later period Joseon warships such as Panokseon and Turtle Ship.

Yuloh sculling oar

The Yuloh, known as Lu (櫓) or Yao Lu (搖櫓) in Chinese language, is a type of large, slightly bend oar originated in China. Designed to be used with a rowing method misnomed stern sculling (even though yuloh can be mounted on any part of a ship, including its bow), of which the oar blade never leaves the water, a Yuloh is significantly more ergonomically- and energy-efficient than an ordinary oar, allowing even a single oarsman to propel a heavy ship at considerable speed without quickly tiring himself out. On the flip side, Yuloh lacks the sheer output of an oar's rowing strokes, so it cannot match the high acceleration and top speed of an oar, especially on light, speedy vessel.

Illustration of a Lou Chuan with its yuloh highlighted. Note the oarsmen facing forward. From 'Wu Jing Zong Yao (《武經總要》)'. 

The adoption of yuloh can inform us about some of the design considerations of ancient Chinese oared warships, as well as their tactics. For instance, Chinese oared warships were almost certainly more heavily built and robust, but slower than equivalent-sized oared warships of other cultures such as Mediterranean galley, due to the use of yuloh. Moreover, even the mightiest Chinese oared warship only had a single bank of oars, due to the fact that oarsmen took up a lot of vertical space (as yuloh is usually sculled standing up) which prevented them from being arranged into multiple levels/banks. Fortunately, the freed space in turn allowed Chinese warships to carry a larger contingent of dedicated combatants or more siege engines. Last but not least, since yuloh mounted on Chinese warships jutted downwards rather than fanning out like oars on galleys, this allowed Chinese warships to navigate narrower channels and form into denser formations.

Crenellated bulwark

Illustration of a Lou Chuan with its crenellated bulwark highlighted. From 'Wu Jing Zong Yao (《武經總要》)'.

Unlike warships of other cultures which were only equipped with railings, simple, uncrenellated bulwarks, or shield lists, Chinese shipwrights routinely installed crenellated bulwarks to the sides of their warships, making this often overlooked and underappreciated feature truly unique to Chinese oared warships.

While the purpose of the battlement is obvious enough, the reason why Chinese shipwrights specifically went out of their way to install crenellation on bulwarks can only be speculated. The simplest reason is that this was due to Chinese naval doctrine placing heavier emphasis on missiles, although there might be another explanation, namely protection of oarsmen. To elaborate, since oarsmen sculled yuloh standing up making them easy targets for enemy missiles, Chinese warships required higher-than-usual bulwarks to protect oarsmen from danger. However, this would result in bulwarks of excessive height that obstruct the view, so it was necessary for crenels to be cut into the bulwarks to allow marines to fight behind them effectively.

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Ships of Zhezhi during the Ming period

UPDATED DECEMBER 31, 2025

While not as prominent as the formidable Fu Chuan (福船) and Guang Chuan (廣船), warships from Zhezhi (浙直)—that is, the regions of Zhejiang and Nanzhili (南直隸, present-day Jiangsu, Anhui, and Shanghai)—were nevertheless a critical backbone of Ming naval power. 

Being adapted to the complex mix of riverine environments of the Yangtze estuary and the shallow coastal and archipelagic waters of the southeastern seaboard, including the numerous islets of the Zhoushan archipelago, ships from Zhezhi exhibited a greater variety in designs, although they were generally characterised by their relatively small size (compared to the Fu Chuan and Guang Chuan), flat bottoms, and use of cloth sails.

Cang Shan Chuan (蒼山船, lit. 'Mount Cang's ship')

Drawing of a Cang Shan Chuan, from 'Bing Lu (《兵錄》)'.

Cang Shan Chuan, also known as Cang Shan Tie (蒼山鐵, lit. 'Mount Cang's iron') and often shortened to Cang Chuan (蒼船), was the most representative ship of Zhezhi. It originated from Zhejiang Province, in particular Taiping County (太平縣, present-day Wenling City).

Being an extinct ship type, much less is known about the Cang Shan Chuan than about other Chinese ships like the Four Great Ancient Ships, although information gleaned from written materials reveals that Cang Shan Chuan had a V- or S-bottom hull that was narrower than the Fu Chuan but wider than the Sha Chuan (沙船), as well as wide prow and stern. It had two decks, the lowest level of the ship served as its ballast, while the main deck right above served as accommodation for the ship crew. All nautical operations of the Cang Shan Chuan, as well as primary fighting compartment of the militarised version of the ship, were located on its main deck, although a reinforced superstructure could still be installed for better protection. A true hybrid sail-and-yuloh ship, the Cang Shan Chuan typically featured cloth sails, and also came equipped with ten yuloh sculling oars, each sculled by four oarsmen. Unusually, all of its yulohs were mounted at the port and starboard quarters, rather than being evenly spread over the entire length of the ship.

Originally built as a fishing vessel, Cang Shan Chuan quickly gained favour in the Ming navy during the Wokou campaign due to its general robustness (which also gave rise to its "iron" moniker), all-weather mobility, and ability to traverse shallow waters unreachable by Fu Chuan. Unfortunately, being one of the smallest Ming warships, the Cang Shan Chuan was seen as merely on par, rather than superior to, Japanese warships, and therefore ill-suited for direct ramming attack and boarding action, as it could neither plough through Japanese ships like its larger cousins from Fujian and Guangdong, nor carry enough combatants to overwhelm the dangerous Japanese warriors in close combat. Nevertheless, Cang Shan Chuan excelled in the roles of patrolling, scouting, rescue operations, providing harassing firepower, pursuing fleeing ships, as well as picking dead bodies out of water after a naval engagement. 

Chong Mu Chuan (艟𦪞船)

Drawing of a Chong Mu Chuan, from 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Chong Mu Chuan was essentially an upsized Cang Shan Chuan that had its bamboo palisades removed (presumably to cut down on weight). Devised by famous Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) to better combat the Wokou, Chong Mu Chuan's greater size allowed it to overpower Japanese ships more easily without sacrificing the great mobility of the smaller Cang Shan Chuan.

Tie Tou Chuan (鐵頭船, lit. 'Iron-headed ship')

Drawing of a Tie Tou Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Tie Tou Chuan was a newer and slightly downsized version of the Chong Mu Chuan.

Similar to the Cang Shan Chuan it was based on, Tie Tou Chuan was described as being smaller and narrower than a Fu Chuan yet wider than a Sha Chuan, having a draught of four to five chi, a wide prow and stern, hybrid sail-and-yuloh propulsion with its six yulohs mounted at the port and starboard quarters, general robustness, all-weather mobility, and suitability for both shallow and deep waters.

Ba Jiang Chuan (八槳船, lit. 'Eight oar boat')

Drawing of a Ba Jiang Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The second-most representative ship of Zhezhi, the Ba Jiang Chuan was a agile vessel fitted with sixteen oars, eight on each side, a stern-mounted yuloh, and (presumably) two masts. While poorly suited for direct combat, it excelled patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships.

Shao Chuan (哨船, lit. 'Sentry ship')

Drawing of a Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Shao Chuan was an oceangoing sail-and-yuloh ship characterised by its V-bottom hull, high and pointed prow, wide stern, huge and tall sails, and large number of equipped yulohs. Originally used by fishermen from Ouhai (甌海) for deep-sea fishing, the ship's superb handling, speed, and agility also made it an excellent military vessel.

Ke Shao Chuan (殼哨船, lit. 'Shell sentry ship')

Drawing of a Ke Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Ke Shao Chuan, also known as Ke Chuan (殼船, lit. 'Shell ship') and Ke Cao (殼艚, lit. 'Shell barge'), was, as its name suggests, an oceangoing fishing ship commonly used by clam-diggers from Wenzhou, characterised by its slender hull with minimal sheer and a V-bottom, as well as a wide stern.

Owing to the nature of clam-digging activities, these fishing vessels frequently fell prey to Wokou hijacking, the pirates preferring them over their own Japanese craft. Ming authorities eventually began to modify small Shao Chuan (see above) into decoy Ke Shao Chuan and mingle them with the ordinary fishing fleet to ambush the pirates.

Wang Suo Chuan (網梭船, lit. 'Net shuttle boat')

Drawing of a Wang Suo Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Wang Suo Chuan was a small fishing boat commonly used by fishermen from Dinghai (定海), Linhai Garrison (臨海衛), Guanhai Garrison (觀海衛), and Xiangshan County (象山縣) to fish at Xiabashan (下八山, part of the Zhoushan archipelago). It was the smallest of Zhezhi's fishing vessels, characterised by a hull that resembled a weaving shuttle, a bamboo mast, and a cloth sail. Despite its extremely small size (only fit for two or three crew members) and shallow 7–8 cun draught, the Wang Suo Chuan was surprisingly seaworthy, able to traverse open ocean just as well as the narrowest brooks and channels—not to mention that this shallow draught, combined with the vessel’s lightweight construction, allowed the boat to be readily dragged ashore by its small crew, offering a reliable way to evade severe weather.

While poorly suited for direct combat, the Wang Suo Chuan excelled in patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships. Furthermore, thanks to its low cost, hundreds of Wang Suo Chuan—each carrying one or two matchlockmen—could be amassed easily to swarm a single ship.

Niao Zui Chuan (鳥嘴船, lit. 'Bird's beak ship')

Drawing of a Niao Zui Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Niao Zui Chuan was a small fishing ship originating from Wenzhou (溫州), Taizhou (台州), Songmen (松門), and Haimen (海門) of Zhejiang Province. The ship was characterised by a distinctive prow that resembled a bird's beak. Normally propelled by sail, it could also be sculled by its single stern-mounted yuloh when there was no wind.

Shui Ju Chuan (水艍船)

Drawing of a Shui Ju Chuan, from 'Shui Shi Ji Yao (《水師輯要》)'.

Shui Ju Chuan was a new type of Zhejiang warship that came into prominence in the final years of the Ming Dynasty and remained in use well into Qing period. It appeared to be a downsized version of the Gan Zeng Chuan (趕繒船), possibly as a result of transmission Fu Chuan technology into Zhejiang, or a fusion of the two shipbuilding traditions. Shui Ju Chuan was primarily equipped with breech-loading swivel guns and heavy matchlocks instead of heavier ordnance like its larger cousin.

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Niao Chuan (鳥船)

A replica Zhejiang Niao Chuan built in 2003. Although seaworthy, the replica's sails appear much smaller than historical ships.

The last of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, Niao Chuan is perhaps the least known of the four, owing to its confusing history and relatively short (but no less crucial) period of military significance. 

Niao Chuan first came into prominence in the early 17th century, during a period when a beleaguered Ming Dynasty was facing unprecedented threats from the sea due to the rise of powerful Chinese pirate lords and the arrival of Dutch East India Company with their powerful great ships. Being one of the few Junk-type ships capable of meeting the new challenge, Niao Chuan quickly displaced older types of war junks and became the premier warship favoured by Ming navy and pirate lords alike, and later also adopted by the ascending Qing Dynasty. 

Unfortunately, Niao Chuan's heyday ended almost as quickly as it came. After the downfall of Ming Dynasty, the Dutch were evicted from Formosa by Ming loyalist Koxinga, whose kingdom he founded was in turn defeated by the Qing. With naval threats subsiding, Niao Chuan was also retired from active military service, although it continued to play an important role as an armed merchant ship long after.

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Fu Chuan (福船)

UPDATED AUGUST 17, 2025

Drawing of a Fu Chuan with full bamboo palisade, from 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'. Note its rolled, rather than folded, sails.

The Fu Chuan (福船, lit. 'Fujian ship'), also known as Bai Cao (白艚, lit. 'White junk'), was a class of Chinese sailing junk originating in Fujian. It was the most widely used and well-known of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and served as the mainstay of the Ming and Qing navies.

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Guang Chuan (廣船)

UPDATED AUGUST 8, 2025

Drawing of a Guang Chuan. Note the outrigger that extends beyond the hull, as well as armed soldiers inside crow's nests. From 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Guang Chuan (廣船, lit. 'Guangdong ship') was a class of Chinese junk originating in Guangdong and commonly used across entire Lingnan region. It was one of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and the one which is least understood.

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Sha Chuan (沙船)

UPDATED JULY 23, 2025

Drawing of a Sha Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Originating from Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze River, Sha Chuan (沙船, lit. 'Sand ship') was one of the iconic "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and one that could trace the longest history.

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Ba La Hu Chuan (叭喇唬船)

UPDATED SEPTEMBER 17, 2022

Drawing of a Ba La Hu Chuan with a curved bow, from 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'.

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Interesting comparison between different warships of the Far East in the sixteenth and seventeenth century

I came across this interesting comparison at Baidu Tieba, although the original post has since been deleted. The original comparison is a simple table written entirely in Chinese, so I translated the table to English and added a few commentaries.

Weight of Cannon (lbs)*	<500	500	1000	1500	2000	3000	4000>
Sixteenth Century Portuguese Galley	34+
Ming Dynasty Feng Zhou (early)	30+
Ming Dynasty Feng Zhou (late)	14+
Mark 1 Warship of Qi Ji Guang's fleet (early)	9+	1
Mark 1 Warship of Qi Ji Guang's fleet (late)	14+		2
Tekkōsen	48 – 70	3
Geobukseon**	20 – 30+
Advanced Ming Dynasty War Junk	30+	14 – 22				6 – 8
Koxinga-era Gong Chuan	100 – 200+	20+					1
Dutch Hired Vessel 'Graaf Hendrik'	?	?	8	10	8	8	2
Mông Đồng							1 – 2

* Although weight of shot is a more reliable measure of firepower, Chinese records seldom mention them. Chinese gunners also frequently loaded their guns with multiple smaller shots in addition to the main shot (which made them less powerful), making measurement purely by weight of shot very misleading.

** This assume a late variant of Geobukseon/Turtle ship with significantly improved armaments, due to the fact that very little is known about the early, Imjin War-era Geobukseon.

Feng Zhou (封舟, lit. 'Investiture ship')

A Qing Dynasty Feng Zhou, from 'Ce Feng Liu Qiu Tu (《冊封琉球圖》)'.

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