Ying Chuan (鷹船)

Note: This blog post was originally part of my Sha Chuan (沙船) article. However, after updating that article with additional information, I decided to separate this content into its own article.

Drawing of a Ying Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The Ying Chuan (鹰船, lit. 'Eagle ship') was an unusual riverine warship that emerged from the shipyards around the estuary of the Yangtze River. Converted from a type of civilian ship known as Shuang Ta Chuan (雙塔船, lit. 'Double tower ship', Shuang Ta was the old name of Shangtazhen), differing in that Shuang Ta Chuan used yuloh whereas Ying Chuan used oars, it rose to prominence during Jia Jing Da Wo Kou (嘉靖大倭寇) period due to its utility in defending inland waterways against Wokou vessels that slipped pass larger naval warships like Fu Chuan (福船), with its use quickly spreading to Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang

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Hui Ping (灰瓶) and Yan Guan (煙罐)

Some ceramic containers that could be made into Hui Ping and Yan Guan (highlighted), from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Hui Ping (灰瓶, lit. 'Ash bottle') and Yan Guan (煙罐, lit. 'Smoke jar') were two oft-overlooked Ming less-lethal weapons commonly used in siege defence and naval warfare. As their names suggest, Hui Ping was a ceramic bottle filled with quicklime powder, meant to be thrown at enemy soldiers to either blind and suffocate them or to create a slippery surface when scattered on wet decks during naval combat (as quicklime reacts chemically with water and turns into slaked lime, which is notoriously slippery when wet), whereas Yan Guan was a black powder-based ceramic smoke bomb used to create a smoke screen, generate choking smoke, or possibly both.

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Du Huo Fei Pao (毒火飛砲)

Drawing of a paper fuse (top right), paper sealing tube (middle right), wooden fuse (top bottom), shell casing (top left) and bombard (bottom left), from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Du Huo Fei Pao (毒火飛砲, lit. 'Poisonous fire flying cannon') was a bombard-launched explosive shell designed to be launched from Wan Kou Pao (碗口砲, lit. 'Bowl-muzzle cannon'), an ordinary stone-throwing bronze bombard already in widespread use since the founding of Ming Dynasty.

First appeared in late 15th/early 16th century and entered mass production by 1544 at the latest, Du Huo Fei Pao was a spherical cast iron shell filled with black powder and up to five liang of sulfur, arsenic and other poisonous substance/irritants (hence the name "poisonous fire"), and was equipped with a fuse known as Mu Xin (木信, lit. 'Wooden fuse'), which consisted of burning fuse(s) winded around a screw-threaded wooden rod and sealed inside a thick paper tube to prevent premature contact between the fuse and bursting charge inside the shell. A cleverly designed ignition device, Mu Xin allowed for easy adjustment of time-delay before detonation through increasing or decreasing the number of threads on the wooden rod (and thus the length of the burning fuse).

Despite its ingenuity, Mu Xin did have some drawbacks, namely It was a fairly complicated device assembled from three different components (burning fuse, wooden rod and paper tube), not to mention hand-carving screw threads onto a wooden rod took considerable amount of skill and time. Fortunately, an alternative that offered similar level of consistency whilst being far easier to made was later discovered. Known as Zhi Xin (紙信, lit. 'Paper fuse'), this alternative fuse was simply the motor part of a Chinese rocket being adapted into a fuse.

EXTRA: Bigyeok Jincheonroe (비격진천뢰 or 飛擊震天雷)

Drawing of a large Bigyeok Jincheonroe, from 'Yungwon pilbi (《융원필비》 or 《戎垣必備》)'.

Bigyeok Jincheonroe was a cast iron shrapnel shell invented in Joseon Dynasty Korea by weapon engineer Yi Jangson (이장손 or 李長孫) in 1591, and proved instrumental in the liberation of Gyeongju city from Japanese invaders during Imjin War that broke out one year after its invention.

Named after another Chinese weapon, Bigyeok Jincheonroe bore a striking resemblance to Du Huo Fei Pao even down to design of the fuse based on screw-threaded wooden rod, which suggests that its invention may be inspired by Du Huo Fei Pao. Nevertheless, there were some notable differences between the two as well, chief among them material of the sealing tube—the Koreans used a bamboo tube whereas the Chinese used a paper tube—which likely influenced the design of the fuse hole as well. Specifically, Bigyeok Jincheonroe had a large rectangular fuse hole with a matching iron lid, but this was not found on Du Huo Fei Pao (which had a normal round fuse hole). This was due to the fact that bamboo is relatively rigid and smooth-surfaced, which may cause the fuse to slip out of the hole if it is not pinned in place by the iron lid. In contrast, paper is supple and coarse and serves as natural wadding, allowing the fuse to fit snugly into the hole like a stopper.

Bamboo sealing tube (left), iron lid (middle), and bomb casing of a Bigyeok Jincheonroe with a squarish fuse hole (right).

Interestingly, the Koreans also never appeared to adopt the more convenient Zhi Xin fuse.

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Equipment of a Ming soldier — Xian Mei (銜枚)

Drawing of the flat back side of a Xian Mei, with placeholder soldier and military unit names written on it. From 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Xian Mei (銜枚, lit. 'Bit stick') or simply Mei (枚) was a simple wooden or bamboo stick used as a gag for soldiers, both to prevent unnecessary chattering while the army was on the move, as well as an aid for observing noise discipline during special military operation such as night raid and ambush. Such device had a very long history of military use in ancient China—records of soldiers conducting night raids with Xian Mei between their teeth can be found in some of the earliest Chinese texts such as Rites of Zhou and Records of the Grand Historians. 

Ming Dynasty iteration of Xian Mei, its design largely finalised by famous commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光), was a 4 cun (12.8 cm/5 in) long and 5 fen (16 mm/0.6 in) wide bamboo stick that came with a lanyard so that it could be worn around the neck or hung from the side of a helmet when not in use. Qi Ji Guang also specifically preferred semi-cylindrical slip over a round rod so as to have a writable surface, as he intended Xian Mei to double as identification tag for his soldiers.

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Ships of Zhezhi during the Ming period

UPDATED DECEMBER 31, 2025

While not as prominent as the formidable Fu Chuan (福船) and Guang Chuan (廣船), warships from Zhezhi (浙直)—that is, the regions of Zhejiang and Nanzhili (南直隸, present-day Jiangsu, Anhui, and Shanghai)—were nevertheless a critical backbone of Ming naval power. 

Being adapted to the complex mix of riverine environments of the Yangtze estuary and the shallow coastal and archipelagic waters of the southeastern seaboard, including the numerous islets of the Zhoushan archipelago, ships from Zhezhi exhibited a greater variety in designs, although they were generally characterised by their relatively small size (compared to the Fu Chuan and Guang Chuan), flat bottoms, and use of cloth sails.

Cang Shan Chuan (蒼山船, lit. 'Mount Cang's ship')

Drawing of a Cang Shan Chuan, from 'Bing Lu (《兵錄》)'.

Cang Shan Chuan, also known as Cang Shan Tie (蒼山鐵, lit. 'Mount Cang's iron') and often shortened to Cang Chuan (蒼船), was the most representative ship of Zhezhi. It originated from Zhejiang Province, in particular Taiping County (太平縣, present-day Wenling City).

Being an extinct ship type, much less is known about the Cang Shan Chuan than about other Chinese ships like the Four Great Ancient Ships, although information gleaned from written materials reveals that Cang Shan Chuan had a V- or S-bottom hull that was narrower than the Fu Chuan but wider than the Sha Chuan (沙船), as well as wide prow and stern. It had two decks, the lowest level of the ship served as its ballast, while the main deck right above served as accommodation for the ship crew. All nautical operations of the Cang Shan Chuan, as well as primary fighting compartment of the militarised version of the ship, were located on its main deck, although a reinforced superstructure could still be installed for better protection. A true hybrid sail-and-yuloh ship, the Cang Shan Chuan typically featured cloth sails, and also came equipped with ten yuloh sculling oars, each sculled by four oarsmen. Unusually, all of its yulohs were mounted at the port and starboard quarters, rather than being evenly spread over the entire length of the ship.

Originally built as a fishing vessel, Cang Shan Chuan quickly gained favour in the Ming navy during the Wokou campaign due to its general robustness (which also gave rise to its "iron" moniker), all-weather mobility, and ability to traverse shallow waters unreachable by Fu Chuan. Unfortunately, being one of the smallest Ming warships, the Cang Shan Chuan was seen as merely on par, rather than superior to, Japanese warships, and therefore ill-suited for direct ramming attack and boarding action, as it could neither plough through Japanese ships like its larger cousins from Fujian and Guangdong, nor carry enough combatants to overwhelm the dangerous Japanese warriors in close combat. Nevertheless, Cang Shan Chuan excelled in the roles of patrolling, scouting, rescue operations, providing harassing firepower, pursuing fleeing ships, as well as picking dead bodies out of water after a naval engagement. 

Chong Mu Chuan (艟𦪞船)

Drawing of a Chong Mu Chuan, from 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Chong Mu Chuan was essentially an upsized Cang Shan Chuan that had its bamboo palisades removed (presumably to cut down on weight). Devised by famous Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) to better combat the Wokou, Chong Mu Chuan's greater size allowed it to overpower Japanese ships more easily without sacrificing the great mobility of the smaller Cang Shan Chuan.

Tie Tou Chuan (鐵頭船, lit. 'Iron-headed ship')

Drawing of a Tie Tou Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Tie Tou Chuan was a newer and slightly downsized version of the Chong Mu Chuan.

Similar to the Cang Shan Chuan it was based on, Tie Tou Chuan was described as being smaller and narrower than a Fu Chuan yet wider than a Sha Chuan, having a draught of four to five chi, a wide prow and stern, hybrid sail-and-yuloh propulsion with its six yulohs mounted at the port and starboard quarters, general robustness, all-weather mobility, and suitability for both shallow and deep waters.

Ba Jiang Chuan (八槳船, lit. 'Eight oar boat')

Drawing of a Ba Jiang Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The second-most representative ship of Zhezhi, the Ba Jiang Chuan was a agile vessel fitted with sixteen oars, eight on each side, a stern-mounted yuloh, and (presumably) two masts. While poorly suited for direct combat, it excelled patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships.

Shao Chuan (哨船, lit. 'Sentry ship')

Drawing of a Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Shao Chuan was an oceangoing sail-and-yuloh ship characterised by its V-bottom hull, high and pointed prow, wide stern, huge and tall sails, and large number of equipped yulohs. Originally used by fishermen from Ouhai (甌海) for deep-sea fishing, the ship's superb handling, speed, and agility also made it an excellent military vessel.

Ke Shao Chuan (殼哨船, lit. 'Shell sentry ship')

Drawing of a Ke Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Ke Shao Chuan, also known as Ke Chuan (殼船, lit. 'Shell ship') and Ke Cao (殼艚, lit. 'Shell barge'), was, as its name suggests, an oceangoing fishing ship commonly used by clam-diggers from Wenzhou, characterised by its slender hull with minimal sheer and a V-bottom, as well as a wide stern.

Owing to the nature of clam-digging activities, these fishing vessels frequently fell prey to Wokou hijacking, the pirates preferring them over their own Japanese craft. Ming authorities eventually began to modify small Shao Chuan (see above) into decoy Ke Shao Chuan and mingle them with the ordinary fishing fleet to ambush the pirates.

Wang Suo Chuan (網梭船, lit. 'Net shuttle boat')

Drawing of a Wang Suo Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Wang Suo Chuan was a small fishing boat commonly used by fishermen from Dinghai (定海), Linhai Garrison (臨海衛), Guanhai Garrison (觀海衛), and Xiangshan County (象山縣) to fish at Xiabashan (下八山, part of the Zhoushan archipelago). It was the smallest of Zhezhi's fishing vessels, characterised by a hull that resembled a weaving shuttle, a bamboo mast, and a cloth sail. Despite its extremely small size (only fit for two or three crew members) and shallow 7–8 cun draught, the Wang Suo Chuan was surprisingly seaworthy, able to traverse open ocean just as well as the narrowest brooks and channels—not to mention that this shallow draught, combined with the vessel’s lightweight construction, allowed the boat to be readily dragged ashore by its small crew, offering a reliable way to evade severe weather.

While poorly suited for direct combat, the Wang Suo Chuan excelled in patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships. Furthermore, thanks to its low cost, hundreds of Wang Suo Chuan—each carrying one or two matchlockmen—could be amassed easily to swarm a single ship.

Niao Zui Chuan (鳥嘴船, lit. 'Bird's beak ship')

Drawing of a Niao Zui Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Niao Zui Chuan was a small fishing ship originating from Wenzhou (溫州), Taizhou (台州), Songmen (松門), and Haimen (海門) of Zhejiang Province. The ship was characterised by a distinctive prow that resembled a bird's beak. Normally propelled by sail, it could also be sculled by its single stern-mounted yuloh when there was no wind.

Shui Ju Chuan (水艍船)

Drawing of a Shui Ju Chuan, from 'Shui Shi Ji Yao (《水師輯要》)'.

Shui Ju Chuan was a new type of Zhejiang warship that came into prominence in the final years of the Ming Dynasty and remained in use well into Qing period. It appeared to be a downsized version of the Gan Zeng Chuan (趕繒船), possibly as a result of transmission Fu Chuan technology into Zhejiang, or a fusion of the two shipbuilding traditions. Shui Ju Chuan was primarily equipped with breech-loading swivel guns and heavy matchlocks instead of heavier ordnance like its larger cousin.

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Niao Chuan (鳥船)

A replica Zhejiang Niao Chuan built in 2003. Although seaworthy, the replica's sails appear much smaller than historical ships.

The last of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, Niao Chuan is perhaps the least known of the four, owing to its confusing history and relatively short (but no less crucial) period of military significance. 

Niao Chuan first came into prominence in the early 17th century, during a period when a beleaguered Ming Dynasty was facing unprecedented threats from the sea due to the rise of powerful Chinese pirate lords and the arrival of Dutch East India Company with their powerful great ships. Being one of the few Junk-type ships capable of meeting the new challenge, Niao Chuan quickly displaced older types of war junks and became the premier warship favoured by Ming navy and pirate lords alike, and later also adopted by the ascending Qing Dynasty. 

Unfortunately, Niao Chuan's heyday ended almost as quickly as it came. After the downfall of Ming Dynasty, the Dutch were evicted from Formosa by Ming loyalist Koxinga, whose kingdom he founded was in turn defeated by the Qing. With naval threats subsiding, Niao Chuan was also retired from active military service, although it continued to play an important role as an armed merchant ship long after.

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Fu Chuan (福船)

UPDATED AUGUST 17, 2025

Drawing of a Fu Chuan with full bamboo palisade, from 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'. Note its rolled, rather than folded, sails.

The Fu Chuan (福船, lit. 'Fujian ship'), also known as Bai Cao (白艚, lit. 'White junk'), was a class of Chinese sailing junk originating in Fujian. It was the most widely used and well-known of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and served as the mainstay of the Ming and Qing navies.

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Guang Chuan (廣船)

UPDATED AUGUST 8, 2025

Drawing of a Guang Chuan. Note the outrigger that extends beyond the hull, as well as armed soldiers inside crow's nests. From 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Guang Chuan (廣船, lit. 'Guangdong ship') was a class of Chinese junk originating in Guangdong and commonly used across entire Lingnan region. It was one of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and the one which is least understood.

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Sha Chuan (沙船)

UPDATED JULY 23, 2025

Drawing of a Sha Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Originating from Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze River, Sha Chuan (沙船, lit. 'Sand ship') was one of the iconic "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and one that could trace the longest history.

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Gu Wang (罟網)

Drawing of a Gu Wang, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Gu Wang (罟網, net) was the Chinese term for fishing net and, in military context, also referred to anti-boarding net used to deter enemy boarders. Made of recycled fishing net, it was typically used on smaller warships not equipped with defensive parapets.

Chinese sailors sometimes wrapped their vessels with anywhere from a few dozens to sixty layers of netting, so that these fishing nets could also resist enemy arrows and firearms.

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Xi Gua Pao (西瓜砲)

Xi Gua Pao (西瓜砲, lit. 'Watermelon bomb')

Drawing of a Xi Gua Pao and its contains, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Ji Li (蒺藜)

A string of caltrops, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Ji Li (蒺藜, lit. 'Puncturevine') was the Chinese name for caltrop. It was usually made of iron, although sometimes wood was used instead. Multiple caltrops, usually five or six, were often strung together with a one bu long rope, so that they could be deployed quickly and retrieved for latter use. Stringed caltrops could be hung on Ai Pai (挨牌) or spear shaft for ease of transportation.

Beside deploying caltrops via normal means, Ming Chinese also used grenades, land mines and explosive shells filled with caltrops.

Standard, four-pointed caltrop was sometimes known as Ling Jiao (菱角, lit. 'Water caltrop'), while caltrop cooked in human feces to inflict infection was called Gui Jian (鬼箭).

A four-pointed wooden caltrop (lower left) and two four-pointed iron caltrops (lower right), from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

A multi-point iron caltrop (highlighted), from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Ju Ma (拒馬)

Ju Ma (拒馬, lit. 'Horse repeller'), also known as Lu Jiao (鹿角, deer horn) and many other names, is the Chinese name for cheval de frise. Chinese armies had been using archer's stake and cheval de frise as early as Warring States period, and over the years many variant designs and modifications were introduced, and Ju Ma gradually became an essential component, rather than simply a supplement, of Chinese armies.

It should be noted that the names listed below were so-called "fancy names", most probably coined by scholars. In practical usage, it was always known as Ju Ma regardless of design.

Jin Shou Ju Ma Lu Jiao Qiang (近守拒馬鹿角鎗, lit. 'Close defence horse repelling deer horn spear')

Drawing of a Jin Shou Ju Ma Lu Jiao Qiang, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Jin Shou Ju Ma Lu Jiao Qiang was the heavy variant of cheval de frise. It was a wooden log covered with nine or ten projecting iron spears. As this variant was quite heavy, it was often used to defend relatively static position.

Yuan Tuo Gu Ying Ju Ma Qiang (遠馱固營拒馬鎗, lit. 'Far carrying, camp reinforcing, horse repelling spear')

Drawing of a Yuan Tuo Gu Ying Ju Ma Qiang, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Yuan Tuo Gu Ying Ju Ma Qiang was the light variant of cheval de frise. Made from three wooden spears joined together at the middle of their shafts, this variant was lighter and more mobile. Yuan Tuo Gu Ying Ju Ma Qiang came with pre-installed iron chains, so that multiple Ju Ma could be linked together to form a barricade.

It was often used to defend temporary camp and wagon fort. Ming foot soldiers and mounted infantry alike often carried Ju Ma wherever they went, only deploying it when they were expecting combat.

Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》) variant

A Ju Ma with hooks (highlighted), from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Designed by Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光), this variant was similar to Yuan Tuo Gu Ying Ju Ma Qiang, but replaced its spearheads with iron hooks.

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Gui Jian (鬼箭)

Gui Jian, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Gui Jian (鬼箭, lit. 'Ghost arrow') was a type of iron caltrop that was cooked with either human feces or poison so that it wouldcause infection when stepped on. It was a very dirty weapon and poses great danger to its user, and thus usually stored inside a container made of bamboo. Instead of planting the caltrops one by one, user of Gui Jian simply scattered the caltrops directly from the container.

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Bi Fu (臂縛)

A pair of Bi Fu, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Lamellar and scale armours of the Ming Dynasty

For most of China's history, lamellar armour and, to a much lesser extent, scale armour were the most widely used armour types in Chinese armies. The use of lamellar armour declined during Ming period, having given way to the more convenient yet no less protective brigandine. Nevertheless, it never disappeared completely from Chinese arsenal.

Generally speaking, there were several different styles of lamellar or scale armour in use during Ming period.

Traditional Song Dynasty-style "Ornate" Armour

Section of an early Ming Dynasty religious scroll painting, depicting a Chinese commander in an ornate suit of composite armour. Shanxi Museum.

This type of armour was one of the most recognisable of Chinese armours, and was usually reserved for the highest ranking commanders and Jin Yi Wei (錦衣衛). It could be of either lamellar, scale, mountain pattern or even mail construction, or a composite of multiple types. As this type of armour was often ornamental in nature, it was usually made of bronze or gilded iron/steel. Field armour of this style also existed, but never common.

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Huo Zhuan (火磚)

Drawing of a Huo Zhuan and its content, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Huo Zhuan (火磚, lit. 'Fire brick') was a type of brick-shaped hand grenade used by the Ming navy. It was a small box made of thin wooden plantes and filled with one jin and four liang of gunpowder charge, twenty paper firecrackers, twenty Fei Yan (飛燕) and thirty iron caltrops. The grenade was waterproofed by wrapping it in four to five layers of oil paper, and was ignited by means of a burning fuse.

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Gou Lian (鈎鐮)

Drawing of a Gou Lian, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Gou Lian (鈎鐮, lit. 'Hook sickle') was a type of long polearm designed for naval use. Essentially a sharpened hook mounted on a one zhang five chi bamboo pole, Gou Lian was comparable in length to some Chang Qiang (長鎗). Gou Lian was used to hook enemy warship or cut off enemy cordage, as well as scooping up dead bodies from the water. Due to its softer bamboo shaft and heavier weight of the hook, it was unsuitable for land use.

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Huo Tong (火桶)

Cutaway drawing of a Huo Tong, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Huo Guan (火罐)

Drawing of a Huo Guan, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

Huo Guan (火罐, lit. 'Fire jar') was a ceramic grenade used in naval warfare. It was a large ceramic pot filled with explosive gunpowder, poison smoke powder, firecrackers, Di Shu (地鼠), fragmentation and caltrops. When thrown, Huo Guan would break and explode upon impact, spreading fragmentation and caltrops over a large area. The erratically moving Di Shu distracted the enemy, causing them to step on the caltrops amid the confusion.

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