Elite Unit of the Ming Dynasty — Biao Bing (標兵)

Armoured Ming cavalrymen, cropped from 'Ping Fan De Sheng Tu (平番得勝圖)'.

While Jia Ding (家丁) was perhaps the most famous Ming Dynasty elite unit, it was not the only one, nor were these semi-private soldiers the most numerous. In actuality, soldiers known as Biao Bing (標兵), an abbreviation of Biao Xia Zhi Bing (標下之兵, lit. 'Soldier under a marked banner'), vastly outnumbered the Jia Ding, and were the closest thing the Ming Dynasty had to a formal elite military formation.

Similar to Jia Ding, Biao Bing also had its root in the long-time practice of high-ranking commanders maintaining their own personal retinues, although it was primarily influenced by, and remained a part of, the Ying Bing System (營兵制). Biao Bing were soldiers that directly and exclusively answered to military overseers (and later Regional Commanders), which, given their high ranks, meant that Biao Bing were drawn from and maintained as the best and most elite soldiers.

Unlike Jia Ding, the founding of a Biao Bing regiment was subject to approval by the central government, and Biao Bing were answerable to the military overseer's position, rather than to the individual. Thus if a military overseer was transferred to another post, he did not take the Biao Bing with him; instead the soldiers answered to his replacement. For this reason, commanders that maintained their own Jia Ding generally avoided assigning their own Jia Ding into Biao Bing regiments.

The earliest Biao Bing regiments, respectively under the command of Supreme Commander of Military Affairs and Concurrently Director-general of Supplies in Xuanda and Shanxi (宣大總督) Weng Wan Da (翁萬達) and Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) Zeng Xian (曾銑), were founded in 1546, both as a response to the increasingly dire threat possessed by the dreaded Altan Khan necessitating military built-up and increase of battle-readiness along the Ming frontiers. After the establishment of Supreme Commander-led Biao Bing, various Grand Coordinators also followed suit, and later even Regional Commanders begun to raise their own Biao Bing regiments.

As the practice grew widespread, Biao Bing went from being an elite core to the backbone of the Ming army, prompting the need to distinguish various types of Biao Bing: regiments serving under Supreme Commanders or Overseers of the Armed Force were known as Du Biao Ying (督標營, "Overseer-marked regiment"), those led by Grand Coordinators were known as Xun Biao Ying (巡標營, . 'Coordinator-marked regiment"), while Biao Bing commanded by Regional Commanders were organised into Zhen Biao Ying (鎮標營, "Regional-marked regiment").

Recruitment

There were no standardised, codified criteria for recruiting Biao Bing, and they were recruited from a wide variety of sources—often with members of the same unit hailing from markedly different origins. Common sources included:

1. Exceptional soldiers handpicked from existing regiments

Because Biao Bing often served the highest-ranking military overseers of a given theatre—who naturally wanted the very best soldiers under their command—a common method of quickly raising a new Biao Bing regiment was to simply cream the best soldiers and leaders from existing units.

Occasionally, some Regional Commanders—who lacked the authority of military overseers—converted entire Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營) under their command into Biao Bing regiments.

2. Direct recruitment

Given that Biao Bing were more numerous than Jia Ding and organised as full regiments, continually skimming the best soldiers from existing units to raise yet more Biao Bing regiments quickly became impractical and self-defeating—especially once the practice became more common. As such, raising Biao Bing regiments from new recruits remained the preferred method.

3. Tong Shi (通事, lit. 'Translator/interpreter') and Ye Bu Shou (夜不收)

Specialist units such as Tong Shi and Ye Bu Shou were especially valued for their hardiness and their familiarity with local geography, customs, and cultures, making them excellent candidates for Biao Bing recruitment. However, their scarcity meant that Tong Shi and Ye Bu Shou could only supplement the Biao Bing, never constituting the bulk of the regiments’ numbers.

4. Jia Ding

Already elite-trained, Jia Ding naturally made excellent Biao Bing candidates, so attempts were made to recruit them as far back as the earliest conception of Biao Bing. This often came in the form of assigning disgraced commanders along with their Jia Ding into Biao Bing units. Nevertheless, due to conflicting loyalties and the fact that Jia Ding often refused to leave their liege's side for long, these attempts were met with varying success.

Equipment, organisation and tactics

Because Biao Bing were functionally the elite version of normal Ying Bing units, they were organized no differently from ordinary regiments. There was no limitation on arm of service, equipment, or origin of recruits, and no requirement that all members of the same Biao Bing regiment had to belong to the same troop type. They simply received better-quality training, superior equipment, higher status, and improved pay than their ordinary counterparts. Naturally, Biao Bing were more or less indistinguishable from regular Ming soldiers in appearance; only their chain of command sets them apart. 

Many powerful and famous military units in the history of the Ming Dynasty were in fact Biao Bing that exclusively answered to certain military overseers. Notable examples included the war cart regiment of Zeng Xian (曾銑) and the Biao Bing army of Sun Chuan Ting (孫傳庭) during the final years of the Ming Dynasty.

The Regiment's Finest

The Biao Bing served two primary functions, namely to act as an elite vanguard, as well as serving as exemplars to other soldiers. These functions often encompassed serving as military overseer's retinues and bodyguards, fighting in the thick of battle where enemy resistance was fiercest, demonstrating the highest standards of courage and discipline and leading by example, as well as reinforcing military overseer's authority and dominance in order to prevent and suppress potential insubordination and mutiny.

And Biao Bing's battlefield performance certainly lived up to to the elite quality demanded of soldiers entrusted with such functions. Soon after Biao Bing's inception, a contingent of roughly one hundred Biao Bing, who served under Wen Wang Da and were stationed at Bogegu (鵓鴿峪, lit. 'Rock dove valley'), came under attack by tens of thousands of Mongol cavalry . Outnumbered a hundred to one and losing one of their commanders early, these Biao Bing nevertheless fought a valiant last stand, killing nearly six times their own numbers before being overrun. Victory though it was, the Mongols were so shaken by the horrific casualties that they vented their anger by ripping open the bellies of all fallen Biao Bing and stuffing them with rocks—yet the reputation of these fearsome soldiers would still send shockwaves across the entire steppe.

The last stand at Bogegu was certainly not an isolated incident, and Biao Bing would continue to steadfastly serve as the backbone of the Ming military—sometimes even constituting the majority—until the dynasty’s downfall. In fact, even after Ming Dynasty fell into terminal decline, Biao Bing still retained much of their combat prowess. The Biao Bing of Sun Chuan Ting, for example, were instrumental in crushing the Shaanxi peasant rebellion and capturing rebel leader Gao Ying Xian (高迎祥) alive in a brilliantly executed ambush.  

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Military systems and hierarchies of the Ming Dynasty — Part 2: Ying Bing System

Note: English translation of the titles are taken from Chinese-English Dictionary of Ming Government Official Titles, Third Edition, supplemented with some translations of my own.

Note that my own translations and translations taken from elsewhere are italicised.

As the Ming Dynasty began to decline in the sixteenth century, the Wei-Suo System also became increasingly dysfunctional. Corruption, land consolidation, and ever-increasing varieties of corvee labours placed a heavy burden on Wei-Suo servicemen, leading to rampant desertions among able-bodied servicemen, while those who remained were often too old or too weak to desert, and likewise unable to perform military duties. The ailing Wei-Suo System necessitated a reform to salvage the military preparedness of the Ming army, thus a new system known as Ying Bing System (營兵制) was introduced, so-named because soldiers were now organised into regiments known as Ying (營, lit. 'Camp, battalion') instead of Guards and Garrisons.

At its core, Ying Bing System was devised to better manage Mu Bing (募兵, lit. 'Recruited soldier')—a new type of hired soldiery that were recruited and paid a salary for the duration of a military campaign—on a more permanent basis. However, it'd be a reductive misinterpretation to view Ying Bing as some sort of mercenaries, and that the new Ying Bing System superseded the old Wei-Suo System.

In actuality, the bulk of Ying Bing regiments actually comprised of military household servicemen, and both systems ran in parallel and supplemented each others till the very end of the Ming Dynasty. Essentially, Ying Bing System took over the operational functions of the military, allowing Wei-Suo System to be shifted to a primarily administrative role. Under this new system, able-bodied servicemen were drawn from Guards and Garrisons and reorganised into battle-ready regiments, with any vacancies filled by civilian recruits and other sources. This also led to an interesting and unique phenomenon where hereditary military household servicemen, often referred to as Jun (軍, lit. 'Military', i.e. serviceman), and regimented soldiers, often referred to as Bing (兵, lit. 'Soldier'), were seen as two distinct but strongly overlapping entities during Ming period.

Nevertheless, since the Ying Bing System was introduced rather haphazardly as an ad hoc workaround for the ailing Wei-Suo System, and its initial implementation was immature and far from seamless, the system underwent continuous tweaking and refinement until the end of the Ming Dynasty, making it challenging to generalise.

As an institutionalised field formation, leadership positions of the Ying Bing System were directly dispatched and appointed by the central government, and denoted roles rather than formal titles. As such, none of the positions had either a rank or a salary, and it was not unusual for one person to assume several positions concurrently. In addition, there were also numerous one-off titles created for specific purposes.

1. Military Overseers

A unique aspect of the Ying Bing System was that its highest command echelon was dominated not by military officials but by civil officials, who assumed the role of military overseers. Initially, military overseers managed the strategic planning and administrative aspects of the military; however, some were soon granted authority to command military forces, even though planning and administration remained their primary responsibilities.

Military overseers with command authority recruited their soldiers independently of standard regiments, which were directly subordinate to them. These regiments, known as Biao Bing Ying (標兵營), were often made up of the cream of the crop of soldiers, trained to a comparable standard to Jia Ding (家丁).

Du Shi (督師)/Overseer of the Armed Force

Belatedly established during the final years of the Ming Dynasty, Overseer of the Armed Force was the highest-ranking military officer of the Ming Dynasty's military, and was granted the authority to command all military assets in a given theatre, usually four to seven Sheng (省), or provinces.

Overseer of the Armed Force was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis, which, given the position's extensive geographical jurisdiction, usually meant the empire was facing a major crisis.

Jing Lue (經略)/Military Affairs Commissioner

A Military Affairs Commissioner was a high-ranking military overseer primarily tasked with coordinating military operations involving either the Japanese or the Jurchens/Manchu, and was granted authority to command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders involved in a given military campaign. Military Affairs Commissioner slightly outranked Supreme Commander, the next-highest position, although it lacked the authority to issue direct orders to Supreme Commander. On the occasions when both Military Affairs Commissioner and Supreme Commander were present in the same military campaign, decisions were made through discussion and collective agreement between the two.

Similar to Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis. By and large, this position was only needed when there was a wartime emergency or important military campaign.

Zong Du (總督)/Supreme Commander

A Supreme Commander was a senior military overseer with the authority to coordinate and command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders from two to three adjacent provinces, defence regions, or a combination of the two.

For the most part, Supreme Commander was also not a permanent position and could be appointed or dismissed on an as-needed basis, although there were some notable exceptions such as Supreme Commander of Liangguang (兩廣總督), Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) and a few others, which were functionally permanent posts.

Xun Fu (巡撫)/Grand Coordinator

A Grand Coordinator was a official tasked with overseeing the Provincial Administration Commission (布政司), Provincial Surveillance Commission (按察司), and Regional Military Commission of a designated area, usually but not always a province, thus making him functionally the highest-ranking governing official of that area. Unlike the Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner, and Supreme Commander, Grand Coordinator was not a strictly military position, although its responsibility and authority could be, and often was, further expanded to encompass military roles within its province, ranging from administrative and advisory positions to full authority to command Military Superintendents and Regional Commanders.

Originally an imperial auditor dispatched by the emperor to evaluate and, if necessary, intervene in the operations of provincial governments, the Grand Coordinator was made a permanent post with its own government office during mid-Ming period, as it was found to be effective in enabling the central government to exert direct control over its provinces.

Circuit official

A Dao (道), or circuit, was a supervising institution established by the provincial governments to oversee and monitor the operations of prefecture-level governments, although over time it also gradually assumed governing and administrative responsibilities. Many types of circuits existed, often with confusingly overlapping roles and responsibilities. However, by far the most common were Fen Shou Dao (分守道), or the General Administration Circuit, primarily responsible for administration, finance and taxation; and Fen Xun Dao (分巡道), or the General Surveillance Circuit, primarily responsible for law enforcement, public order, and governance oversight.

Regarding military matters, the circuit primarily responsible was Bing Bei Dao (兵備道), or the Military Defence Circuit, although it sometimes shared this role with General Administration Circuit and General Surveillance Circuit. Military Defence Circuit was charged with training Wei-Suo servicemen and militia, manufacturing and maintaining weapons and equipment, building and maintaining fortifications and city walls, managing logistics, soldier's pay, and military household farmlands, law enforcement and public safety, river and coastal patrols, fostering smoother cooperation between Wei-Suo System and Ying Bing System, and many more. During wartime, circuit officials served in a similar role as Grand Coordinator but in a lesser capacity, reporting to the former and assisting field commanders of lower ranks such as Vice Regional Commanders and Assistant Regional Commanders.

Less commonly, Xun Hai Dao (巡海道), or the Coastal Patrol Circuit, which was more specialised in coastal patrols, combating piracy, and regulating maritime trade, would also be involved in military affairs, especially against naval threats.

Military-related circuits also served an important secondary function—that is, serving in these circuits allowed low-ranking civil officials to accustom themselves to military matters early in their careers. This ensured that a cadre of military-trained civil officials was always available to serve, thereby reducing the likelihood of unqualified officials with no practical military experience being abruptly promoted into senior military roles.

2. Field Commanders

In contrast to military overseers, the role of field commanders was exclusively held by military officials. Their primary duty was to lead battlefield operations, with secondary responsibilities including overseeing training, maintaining fortifications, and even managing canal dredging.

Ti Du (提督)/Military Superintendent

A Military Superintendent was a commanding officer who was granted additional authority over military assets beyond his designated area of responsibility. Typically, this referred to a Regional Commander or Vice Regional Commander who also commanded a few Garrisons in an adjacent province (because a country's defence disposition does not always align with its administrative division), in such cases his original title took precedence as his primary responsibility outweighed his secondary one. However, for major military campaigns, a Regional Commander who was granted the title of Military Superintendent could even command other Regional Commanders subordinated to him, and in such cases he would adopt the title of Military Superintendent as his new primary title, although only for the duration of that campaign.

Elsewise, a Grand Coordinator who was granted full military authority over a province would also receive the same title (the title of Grand Coordinator still took precedence).

Zong Bing (總兵)/Regional Commander

A Regional Commander was a commanding officer with operational authority over a designated area, either a province or a Zhen (鎮), or defence region. Barring the provisional Military Superintendent, it was the highest attainable position for a military official.

The full title of a Regional Commander was actually Zhen Shou Zong Bing Guan (鎮守總兵官, lit. 'Region-defending commander'), with the prefix of Zhen Shou (鎮守, lit. 'Regional defence') indicating that he was responsible for the defence of the entire province or defence region. Naturally, a Regional Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a fortress-settlement called Zhen Cheng (鎮城, lit. '[Defence] Region-city'), which also served as the military headquarters of the entire defence region.

A regiment under direct command of a Regional Commander was known as a Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營, lit. 'Orthodox soldier regiment'). However, after the practice of raising Biao Bing Ying became widespread, Regional Commanders also gradually switched to raising their own Biao Bing Ying.

Fu Zong Bing (副總兵)/Vice Regional Commander

A Vice Regional Commander, as the title suggests, was the second-in-command to the Regional Commander. The position came in two main types, one with the prefix Xie Shou (協守, lit. 'Assisting defence'), who was stationed together with and assisted the Regional Commander; the other with the prefix Fen Shou (分守, lit. 'Separate defence'), who guarded a sub-region within a defence region, called Lu (路), or route. Usually, a Sub-regional Vice Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a smaller fortress-settlement called Lu Cheng (路城, lit. 'Route-city').

A regiment under direct command of a Vice Regional Commander was known as a Qi Bing Ying (奇兵營, lit. 'Unorthodox soldier regiment'). True to its namesake, Qi Bing Ying often engaged in unorthodox tactics such as ambush and flanking attack, and was considered the most elite among the standard regiments.

Can Jiang (參將)/Assistant Regional Commander

An Assistant Regional Commander was a commanding officer ranked below Vice Regional Commander, who advised and assisted the Regional Commander. Like Vice Regional Commander, it also came in Xie Shou and Fen Shou variety, although the majority were Sub-regional Assistant Commanders (i.e. Fen Shou prefix) that guarded either a single route or a strategic choke point (such as a major gateway of the Great Wall). An Assistant Regional Commander outranked a Mobile Corps Commander but did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the latter, as both answered only to Regional Commander.

A regiment under direct command of an Assistant Regional Commander was known as a Yuan Bing Ying (援兵營, lit. 'Succoring soldier regiment'), which focused on safeguarding its designated route, as well as supporting, reinforcing, and acting in concert with other regiments during a larger military campaign.

You Ji (游擊)/Mobile Corps Commander

A Mobile Corps Commander was a commanding officer who had no designated area of responsibility, and could be deployed anywhere within the defence region as the Regional Commander deemed fit. He also had limited authority to engage the enemy or reinforce other commanders at his discretion, without awaiting orders from higher command.

A regiment under direct command of a Mobile Corps Commander was known as a You Bing Ying (游兵營, lit. 'Roaming soldier regiment'), which functioned as a rapid response force.

Du Si (都司)/Supervising Commander

Originally a short form of Regional Military Commission, Du Si or Supervising Commander had since become a title of a military officer during mid-to-late Ming period, primarily responsible for leading and managing Zhong Jun (中軍, lit. 'Army of the Centre'), the headquarters unit of a regiment. Occasionally, Supervising Commander also served as either acting Assistant Regional Commander or acting Mobile Corps Commander.

Supervising Commander outranked Municipal Military Commander, despite the title being introduced later. It did not have the authority to issue direct orders to Municipal Military Commander.

Shou Bei (守備)/Municipal Military Commander

A Municipal Military Commander was a commanding officer who was responsible for the defence of a single settlement or fortress, and was usually stationed at a Wei Cheng, a Suo Cheng (i.e. existing Wei-Suo System fortress-settlements), or an even smaller fortress-settlement called Bao Cheng (堡城, lit. 'Fort-town'). Most Municipal Military Commanders were subordinate to an Assistant Regional Commander, although there were some that answered directly to the Regional Commander, or even Supreme Commander.

Soldiers under the command of Municipal Military Commanders were known as Shou Cheng Bing (守城兵, lit. 'City-defending soldier'), who were often drawn from Cheng Chao Jun (城操軍, lit. 'City-defending and drilling serviceman')— that is, Wei-Suo servicemen selected for city defence duty and underwent regular training, blurring the line between the two. Shou Cheng Bing were considered the lowest quality soldiers and rarely form regiments, although they still met minimum combat-capable standards. In time of need, Shou Cheng Bing also acted as a reservist force and provided replacement personnel for other regiments.

3. Junior Military Officers

Junior military officers were grassroots-level officers that assisted field commanders in various operational duties. They were appointed by the local Grand Coordinators or (rarely) Supreme Commanders, rather than the central government, and thus were not generally considered Jiang Guang (將官, lit. 'General-official') or "commander", although this wasn't a hard rule (Municipal Military Commander for example could be appointed by a Supreme Commander).

Since local Grand Coordinators or Supreme Commanders appointed their respective junior military officers, there was little standardization in their titles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, junior military officers could still be broadly grouped into two categories, namely Guang Ying Guan (管營官) and Shou Tu Guan (守土官), which will be elaborated below.

3.1 Guan Ying Guan (管營官)/Regiment-managing Officers

Regiment-managing Officers were junior military officers subordinate to their respective Regiment Commanders, responsible for leading small units, executing command orders, managing troop training and so on. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there was little standardisation at the regimental level, as different commanders organised and structured their respective regiments differently. There were also clear differences between regiments raised in North China and regiments raised in South China.

For example, unit hierarchy of the Qi Jia Jun (戚家軍) was as follow:

• Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Shao (哨, 49 personnel) — Guan (官, 297 personnel) — Zong (總, roughly 940 personnel) — Da Ying (大營, roughly 4,000 personnel)

For comparison, Ji Defence Region Infantry Regiment led by the same commander was organised as follow:

• Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Qi (旗, 37 personnel) — Ju (局, 112 personnel) — Si (司, 449 personnel) — Bu (部, 889 personnel) — Ying (營, 2,699 personnel)

This shows that there could be considerable variations between regiments, even those led by the same commander at different times. As such, the following list of Regiment-managing Officers only represented the most generic structure of a North China defence region regiment.

Ying Jiang (營將)/Regiment Commander

A Regiment Commander, as its name suggests, was a commanding officer appointed to lead a single regiment on behalf of a higher-ranked commander who had multiple regiments under his command, and thus could not personally lead each one. Usually, Regiment Commanders led Biao Bing Ying on behalf of military overseers, who generally lacked combat training.

(Note: Regiment Commander was not a junior military officer)

Zhong Jun Guan (中軍官)/Officer of the Army of the Centre

An Officer of the Army of the Centre was one of the positions that a Supervising Commander could hold, with the primary responsibilities of relaying orders from the commander to the rest of the regiment.

Zuo Ying Guan (坐營官)/Military Official on-duty

A Military Official on-duty was another position that a Supervising Commander could hold, the primary responsibilities of which were to manage and lead the regiment. Oftentimes, Officer of the Army of the Centre and Military Official on-duty were merged into one position, called Zuo Ying Zhong Jun Guan (坐營中軍官), and held by a single officer.

Qian Zong (千總)/Battalion Officer

A Battalion Officer typically commanded a military unit of two companies, totalling one thousand soldiers, called a Shao (哨, lit. 'Sentry'), or Battalion.

Ba Zong (把總)/Company Officer

A Company Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten platoons, totalling five hundred soldiers, called a Si (司, lit. 'Bureau') or Company.

Guan Dui (管隊)/Platoon Officer

A Platoon Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten teams, totalling fifty soldiers, called a Dui (隊) or Platoon. Sometimes a single platoon could have up to two Platoon Officers.

Wu Zhang (伍長)/Team Leader

A Team Leader commanded a small military unit of five soldiers, called a Wu (伍), or Team.

Other than troop leaders, there were also many specialist officers, including but not limited to:

• Qi Gu Guan (旗鼓官, lit. 'Banner and drum officer'), an officer who managed the relaying of orders with flag and drum signals;
• Qi Pai Guan (旗牌官, lit. 'Banner and badge officer'), an officer who managed communication with runners;
• Tang Bao Guan (塘報官, lit. 'Scout officer'), a scout officer;
• Shen Qi Ba Zong (神器把總, lit. 'Divine tool officer'), and officer who managed the firearms division and attached artillery.

3.2 Shou Tu Guan (守土官)/Territory-defending Officers

Territory-defending Officers were junior military officers subordinate to Municipal Military Commanders, and were tasked with defending various forts, fortlets, watch towers, and villages. They came in all sort of titles with little to no standardisation, including but not limited to:

• Cao Shou (操守, Military Officer in Charge of Training and Defense Affairs)
• Bei Yu (備禦, lit. 'Warder')
• Ti Diao (提調, lit. 'Promoter')
• Fang Shou Guan (防守官, lit. 'Defence officer')
• Qian Zong (千總) and Ba Zong (把總), sharing the same titles with Battalion Officer and Company Officer respectively, but with very different duties.

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Qiang Chong (鎗銃)

Drawing of a Qiang Chong and its ramrod, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Qiang Chong (鎗銃, lit. 'Gun spear') was, as its name suggests, a combination of a spear and a gun. It consisted of a two chi long gun barrel mounted on a five chi long spear shaft, with two five cun long spearheads (or possibly one spearhead forged in two halves) mounted near the muzzle, as well as a two cun long butt spike mounted on the rear end of the spear shaft. The gun part of Qiang Chong had a three fen calibre, and was typically loaded with two qian five fen of gunpowder as well as a one qian six fen lead bullet (which was roughly half the weight of a typical Ming arquebus bullet). 

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Patreon supporter only: Firearms regiment of Wen brothers

Some firearms commonly used in Northwest China (in particular Shaanxi and Xuanfu Garrison) around 1600s, roughly to-scale to the soldier.

The reluctance of various garrisons in North China to adopt matchlock gun on a large scale, criticism by renowned Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) regarding Ming northern troops' impatience and indiscipline, and the bad impression northern troops left on the Koreans during Imjin War, sometimes give an impression that northern troops were somehow unsophisticated, close-minded and hidebound compared to their southern brethren who eagerly absorbed European science and technology.

However, this is evidently untrue. Ming northern troops were very much shaped by their environment (i.e. strong winds common in North China often blow away gunpowder inside priming pan, whcih makes matchlock gun unreliable), limitations (i.e. difficulties in acquiring good quality iron ore which were mostly produced in Fujian) as well as challenges they faced (i.e. Mongols horsemen), and refined their tactics and equipment along a very different path.

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Di Lei Lian Pao (地雷連砲) and Xun Lei Pao (迅雷砲)

Di Lei Lian Pao (地雷連砲, lit. 'Ground thunder rapid cannon')

Drawing of three soldiers firing three Di Lei Lian Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Di Lei Lian Pao was a small volley gun that consisted of 10 small cannons brazed to a solid iron stock in a fan shape. Originated from Shaanxi (陝西) region of Northwest China, Di Lei Lian Pao was a very lightweight weapon weighing only twenty jin (11.8 kg or 26 lbs) which allowed the weapon to be easily deployed and transported without a wheeled gun carriage—an important feature allowing the weapon to be used more effectively against fast-paced Mongol horsemen. Despite being a volley gun that fired its shots in a spread, Di Lei Lian Pao was still fitted with an iron sight.

To prevent the huge recoil generated by all ten barrels firing simultaneously from throwing off such a light weapon, potentially even hurting its user, the iron stock of Di Lei Lian Pao had an integrated ring that allowed the weapon to be staked to the ground during use.

Drawing of one soldier firing multiple Di Lei Lian Pao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Di Lei Lian Pao was originally a tripwire gun that uses Gang Lun Fa Huo (鋼輪發火) as its triggering mechanism (hence 'Di Lei [地雷]' in its name), although this was later changed to having a gunner to manually fire the volley gun, as this was found to be much more convenient and responsive.

Di Lei Lian Pao utilised a two-stage fuse, which consisted of a very short section of normal fuse (i.e. Chinese paper fuse), known as Zou Xian (走線, lit. 'Walking thread'), connecting to a much longer section of flat quickmatch fuse, known as Bian Xian (扁線, lit. 'Flat thread') that extended all the way to the touch hole of the volley gun. The use of long fuse to ignite Di Lei Lian Pao allowed the gunner to stand at a safe distance from the weapon, as well as for a single gunner to operate multiple guns by himself.

Xun Lei Pao (迅雷砲, lit. 'Quick thunder cannon')

Drawing of a Xun Lei Pao, from 'Li Qi Jie (《利器解》)'.

Xun Lei Pao was basically a larger, lighter, more powerful, but single shot version of Di Lei Lian Pao. It was a small iron cannon weighing only 10 jin (6 kg or 13 lbs) and came with a slightly flared muzzle, front and back iron sight, as well as an extended solid portion behind the cannon breach with a hole punched through it to allow the cannon to be staked to the ground during use much like its multi-shot counterpart.

Xun Lei Pao should not to be confused with Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃), a weapon with similar name.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Hu Tou Che (虎頭車) and Hu Yi Che (虎翼車)

Hu Tou Che (left) and Hu Yi Che (right) on the move, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'. Note that while the protective screen of Hu Tou Che has to be dismantled and transported on the wheelbarrow, the blanket of Hu Yi Che can be simply rolled-up and carried by a soldier.

Hu Tou Che (虎頭車) and Hu Yi Che (虎翼車) were two types of war wheelbarrows meant to be used together in a formation. They were comparatively simple designs devised by Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) before he went on to develop the more complex Ying Chang Che (鷹揚車).

Hu Tou Che (虎頭車, lit. 'Tiger head cart')

Drawing of a Hu Tou Che and its sloped protective screen (highlighted), from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Hu Tou Che was essentially a wheelbarrow of a fairly typical Chinese design, with two handle bars and a large single wheel placed at the bottom of the barrow. Unlike its civilian counterpart, Hu Tou Che was fitted with a front wooden rack to mount the protective screen, as well as two water tanks beside its wheel that doubled as counterweights. Its sloped protective screen—reminiscence of frontal armour of modern tank—was the most unique component of the war wheelbarrow. Made of two layers of wooden planks, plus a row of split bamboos nailed to its outward-facing side, the lightweight yet sturdy protective screen was constructed in such a way that there was empty space between its two wooden layers that could be filled with dirt (as a defence against firearms). It was usually equipped with two large gun ports designed to accommodate the powerful Ying Yang Pao (鷹揚砲), although some variants may have one additional gun port for either heavy Fo Lang Ji (佛朗機) or Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲).

Hu Yi Che (虎翼車, lit. 'Tiger wings cart')

Drawing of a Hu Yi Che and its protective blanket, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Hu Yi Che was similar to Hu Tou Che in most respects, only differ in that it had an additional set of handle bars, two wooden racks so that its protective screen could be hung on either side of the wheelbarrow, as well as only one water tank to act as counterbalance to its protective screen. In place of rigid wood-and-bamboo composite plating, Hu Yi Che used a large rectangular blanket as its protective screen, made in the exact same way as the canopy of Ju Ma San (拒馬傘).

Proposed wheelbarrow regiment

Hu Tou Che and Hu Yi Che deployed together, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen proposed a powerful regiment-sized unit for his war wheelbarrows, likely as a throwback to the then-active Ji Defence Region war cart regiments raised by Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) decades before. A detailed breakdown of Zhao Shi Zhen's proposed regiment is available on my Patreon!

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Ships of Zhezhi during the Ming period

UPDATED DECEMBER 31, 2025

While not as prominent as the formidable Fu Chuan (福船) and Guang Chuan (廣船), warships from Zhezhi (浙直)—that is, the regions of Zhejiang and Nanzhili (南直隸, present-day Jiangsu, Anhui, and Shanghai)—were nevertheless a critical backbone of Ming naval power. 

Being adapted to the complex mix of riverine environments of the Yangtze estuary and the shallow coastal and archipelagic waters of the southeastern seaboard, including the numerous islets of the Zhoushan archipelago, ships from Zhezhi exhibited a greater variety in designs, although they were generally characterised by their relatively small size (compared to the Fu Chuan and Guang Chuan), flat bottoms, and use of cloth sails.

Cang Shan Chuan (蒼山船, lit. 'Mount Cang's ship')

Drawing of a Cang Shan Chuan, from 'Bing Lu (《兵錄》)'.

Cang Shan Chuan, also known as Cang Shan Tie (蒼山鐵, lit. 'Mount Cang's iron') and often shortened to Cang Chuan (蒼船), was the most representative ship of Zhezhi. It originated from Zhejiang Province, in particular Taiping County (太平縣, present-day Wenling City).

Being an extinct ship type, much less is known about the Cang Shan Chuan than about other Chinese ships like the Four Great Ancient Ships, although information gleaned from written materials reveals that Cang Shan Chuan had a V- or S-bottom hull that was narrower than the Fu Chuan but wider than the Sha Chuan (沙船), as well as wide prow and stern. It had two decks, the lowest level of the ship served as its ballast, while the main deck right above served as accommodation for the ship crew. All nautical operations of the Cang Shan Chuan, as well as primary fighting compartment of the militarised version of the ship, were located on its main deck, although a reinforced superstructure could still be installed for better protection. A true hybrid sail-and-yuloh ship, the Cang Shan Chuan typically featured cloth sails, and also came equipped with ten yuloh sculling oars, each sculled by four oarsmen. Unusually, all of its yulohs were mounted at the port and starboard quarters, rather than being evenly spread over the entire length of the ship.

Originally built as a fishing vessel, Cang Shan Chuan quickly gained favour in the Ming navy during the Wokou campaign due to its general robustness (which also gave rise to its "iron" moniker), all-weather mobility, and ability to traverse shallow waters unreachable by Fu Chuan. Unfortunately, being one of the smallest Ming warships, the Cang Shan Chuan was seen as merely on par, rather than superior to, Japanese warships, and therefore ill-suited for direct ramming attack and boarding action, as it could neither plough through Japanese ships like its larger cousins from Fujian and Guangdong, nor carry enough combatants to overwhelm the dangerous Japanese warriors in close combat. Nevertheless, Cang Shan Chuan excelled in the roles of patrolling, scouting, rescue operations, providing harassing firepower, pursuing fleeing ships, as well as picking dead bodies out of water after a naval engagement. 

Chong Mu Chuan (艟𦪞船)

Drawing of a Chong Mu Chuan, from 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Chong Mu Chuan was essentially an upsized Cang Shan Chuan that had its bamboo palisades removed (presumably to cut down on weight). Devised by famous Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) to better combat the Wokou, Chong Mu Chuan's greater size allowed it to overpower Japanese ships more easily without sacrificing the great mobility of the smaller Cang Shan Chuan.

Tie Tou Chuan (鐵頭船, lit. 'Iron-headed ship')

Drawing of a Tie Tou Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Tie Tou Chuan was a newer and slightly downsized version of the Chong Mu Chuan.

Similar to the Cang Shan Chuan it was based on, Tie Tou Chuan was described as being smaller and narrower than a Fu Chuan yet wider than a Sha Chuan, having a draught of four to five chi, a wide prow and stern, hybrid sail-and-yuloh propulsion with its six yulohs mounted at the port and starboard quarters, general robustness, all-weather mobility, and suitability for both shallow and deep waters.

Ba Jiang Chuan (八槳船, lit. 'Eight oar boat')

Drawing of a Ba Jiang Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

The second-most representative ship of Zhezhi, the Ba Jiang Chuan was a agile vessel fitted with sixteen oars, eight on each side, a stern-mounted yuloh, and (presumably) two masts. While poorly suited for direct combat, it excelled patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships.

Shao Chuan (哨船, lit. 'Sentry ship')

Drawing of a Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Shao Chuan was an oceangoing sail-and-yuloh ship characterised by its V-bottom hull, high and pointed prow, wide stern, huge and tall sails, and large number of equipped yulohs. Originally used by fishermen from Ouhai (甌海) for deep-sea fishing, the ship's superb handling, speed, and agility also made it an excellent military vessel.

Ke Shao Chuan (殼哨船, lit. 'Shell sentry ship')

Drawing of a Ke Shao Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Ke Shao Chuan, also known as Ke Chuan (殼船, lit. 'Shell ship') and Ke Cao (殼艚, lit. 'Shell barge'), was, as its name suggests, an oceangoing fishing ship commonly used by clam-diggers from Wenzhou, characterised by its slender hull with minimal sheer and a V-bottom, as well as a wide stern.

Owing to the nature of clam-digging activities, these fishing vessels frequently fell prey to Wokou hijacking, the pirates preferring them over their own Japanese craft. Ming authorities eventually began to modify small Shao Chuan (see above) into decoy Ke Shao Chuan and mingle them with the ordinary fishing fleet to ambush the pirates.

Wang Suo Chuan (網梭船, lit. 'Net shuttle boat')

Drawing of a Wang Suo Chuan, from 'Liang Zhe Hai Fang Lei Kao Xu Bian (《兩浙海防類考續編》)'.

Wang Suo Chuan was a small fishing boat commonly used by fishermen from Dinghai (定海), Linhai Garrison (臨海衛), Guanhai Garrison (觀海衛), and Xiangshan County (象山縣) to fish at Xiabashan (下八山, part of the Zhoushan archipelago). It was the smallest of Zhezhi's fishing vessels, characterised by a hull that resembled a weaving shuttle, a bamboo mast, and a cloth sail. Despite its extremely small size (only fit for two or three crew members) and shallow 7–8 cun draught, the Wang Suo Chuan was surprisingly seaworthy, able to traverse open ocean just as well as the narrowest brooks and channels—not to mention that this shallow draught, combined with the vessel’s lightweight construction, allowed the boat to be readily dragged ashore by its small crew, offering a reliable way to evade severe weather.

While poorly suited for direct combat, the Wang Suo Chuan excelled in patrolling, scouting, and harassing enemy ships. Furthermore, thanks to its low cost, hundreds of Wang Suo Chuan—each carrying one or two matchlockmen—could be amassed easily to swarm a single ship.

Niao Zui Chuan (鳥嘴船, lit. 'Bird's beak ship')

Drawing of a Niao Zui Chuan, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Niao Zui Chuan was a small fishing ship originating from Wenzhou (溫州), Taizhou (台州), Songmen (松門), and Haimen (海門) of Zhejiang Province. The ship was characterised by a distinctive prow that resembled a bird's beak. Normally propelled by sail, it could also be sculled by its single stern-mounted yuloh when there was no wind.

Shui Ju Chuan (水艍船)

Drawing of a Shui Ju Chuan, from 'Shui Shi Ji Yao (《水師輯要》)'.

Shui Ju Chuan was a new type of Zhejiang warship that came into prominence in the final years of the Ming Dynasty and remained in use well into Qing period. It appeared to be a downsized version of the Gan Zeng Chuan (趕繒船), possibly as a result of transmission Fu Chuan technology into Zhejiang, or a fusion of the two shipbuilding traditions. Shui Ju Chuan was primarily equipped with breech-loading swivel guns and heavy matchlocks instead of heavier ordnance like its larger cousin.

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Niao Chuan (鳥船)

A replica Zhejiang Niao Chuan built in 2003. Although seaworthy, the replica's sails appear much smaller than historical ships.

The last of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, Niao Chuan is perhaps the least known of the four, owing to its confusing history and relatively short (but no less crucial) period of military significance. 

Niao Chuan first came into prominence in the early 17th century, during a period when a beleaguered Ming Dynasty was facing unprecedented threats from the sea due to the rise of powerful Chinese pirate lords and the arrival of Dutch East India Company with their powerful great ships. Being one of the few Junk-type ships capable of meeting the new challenge, Niao Chuan quickly displaced older types of war junks and became the premier warship favoured by Ming navy and pirate lords alike, and later also adopted by the ascending Qing Dynasty. 

Unfortunately, Niao Chuan's heyday ended almost as quickly as it came. After the downfall of Ming Dynasty, the Dutch were evicted from Formosa by Ming loyalist Koxinga, whose kingdom he founded was in turn defeated by the Qing. With naval threats subsiding, Niao Chuan was also retired from active military service, although it continued to play an important role as an armed merchant ship long after.

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Fu Chuan (福船)

UPDATED AUGUST 17, 2025

Drawing of a Fu Chuan with full bamboo palisade, from 'Jing Guo Xiong Lue (《經國雄略》)'. Note its rolled, rather than folded, sails.

The Fu Chuan (福船, lit. 'Fujian ship'), also known as Bai Cao (白艚, lit. 'White junk'), was a class of Chinese sailing junk originating in Fujian. It was the most widely used and well-known of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and served as the mainstay of the Ming and Qing navies.

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Patreon post: Flaws and gaps of samurai armour

 

This article is a continuation of my previous armour comparison blog post, exploring various gaps and weakness of Japanese armour. The article is available to my patrons one month early, but it is open to public now!

The article can be accessed here. If you like my work, please support me via Patreon!

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Guang Chuan (廣船)

UPDATED AUGUST 8, 2025

Drawing of a Guang Chuan. Note the outrigger that extends beyond the hull, as well as armed soldiers inside crow's nests. From 'Deng Tan Bi Jiu (《登壇必究》)'.

Guang Chuan (廣船, lit. 'Guangdong ship') was a class of Chinese junk originating in Guangdong and commonly used across entire Lingnan region. It was one of the "Four Great Ancient Ships" of China, and the one which is least understood.

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Infantry formations of the Imjin War — Part 1

1. Zhejiang infantry formation

『遂命諸技, 一時呈技, 隊長在前, 橙牌居次, 砲手又居次, 筤筅、長搶、三枝搶, 又次次居之, 迭相進退, 左旋右抽, 各臻其妙。』

"(He) then ordered various branches to perform (their) skills together, captain at the front, (rattan) shields formed the next rank, gunners formed the rank after next, and Lang Xian, pikes, tridents formed subsequent ranks. Then (they) arrayed in intervals (and) advanced and retreated by turn, spun left and drawn right, each had its own ingeniousness."

— Korean description of Ming infantry formation under Chen Yin (陳寅) during a military demonstration.

『南兵每隊原有銅鍋外，每名椰瓢一箇，每隊斧二把，鎬頭一把。除銃兵牌手原有腰刀外，其筅、鎗、鎲手各要快利腰刀一把，不拘一式。狼筅鎲兵各帶火箭十枝。』

“Beside the copper pot originally given to every Southern troop squad, every (soldier) (should be given) a coconut ladle, every squad (should be given) two axes (and) one pickaxe. Beside the swords originally owned by gunners and shieldbearers, every other Lang Xian, pike, and Tang Pa troop should be given a sharp sword, irrespective of the types (of swords). Every Lang Xian and Tang Pa troop (should) carry ten rockets.”

— Excerpt of Jing Lue Fu Guo Yao Bian (《經略復國要編》), detailing various equipment provided to Ming Southern troops during the first invasion.

Conjectured Imjin War-era Ming Southern infantry formation. This image is cropped, edited and pieced together from various Ming military treatises and training manuals by myself.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Ju Ma San (拒馬傘) and Ruan Pai (軟牌)

Beside improving and designing various advanced firearms, Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) also came out with many innovative ideas to improve the effectiveness of other equipment. Ju Ma San (拒馬傘, lit. 'Horse-repelling umbrella') and Ruan Pai (軟牌, lit. 'Soft shield') were two such creations. Zhao Shi Zhen was well aware of the protective qualities and usefulness of soft fabric shields like Gun Bei (滾被), Ruan Bi (軟壁) and Gang Rou Pai (剛柔牌), but he also knew that flexible protective equipment can be awkward to handle and difficult to deploy, so he designed the aforementioned Ju Ma San and Ruan Pai as portable, convenient, and easy-to-use improvements to existing flexible shields.

Ju Ma San (拒馬傘)

Components of a Ju Ma San, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Ying Yang Che (鷹揚車)

UPDATED MAY 14, 2023

Left: Inner side of Ying Yang Che. Top Right: Outer side of Ying Yang Che. Bottom Right: A Ying Yang Che with folded protective screens for ease of transportation. From 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

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The bare-footed militia of Changning

A barefoot She man from Luoyuan County. Image cropped from 'Huang Qing Zhi Gong Tu (《皇清職貢圖》)'.

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Po Chuan Fa (破船筏)

Drawing of a Po Chuan Fa, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Po Chuan Fa (破船筏, lit. 'Ship-breaking raft'), also known as Po Chuan Ge (破船舸, lit. 'Ship-breaking barge') was a simple yet effective anti-ship weapon designed for coastal and riverine warfare. It was essentially a heavy log raft assembled from five full-sized, three zhang long tree trunks, waterproofed with tung oil, caulked with putty and hemp, and installed with four to six paddle wheels. For armaments, three Po Zhou Chong (破舟銃, lit. 'Ship-breaking gun') which were essentially oversized Shen Qiang (神鎗) loaded with spear-sized steel darts, were mounted at the bow of the raft. A fully enclosed crew compartment was also built on the raft to allow the crews to operate the guns and paddle wheels in relative safety.

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Elite Unit of the Ming Dynasty — Jia Ding (家丁)

MINOR UPDATE NOVEMBER 24, 2025

Armoured cavalry escorting a commander and a mandarin. From 'Kang Wo Tu Juan (《抗倭圖卷》)'.

As Ming empire began to weaken, its once-mighty military machine based on Wei-Suo System (衛所制) also fell into disarray. Realising the worrying decline of the army's combat strength, some Ming commanders took it upon themselves to recruit and train better troops out of their own personal pockets. However, Ming Dynasty laws explicitly forbade its commanders to raise private armies, so these commanders exploited a loophole in the law—by categorising these private troops as Jia Ding (家丁), or "housemen/house servants", instead of soldiers. This was the origin of Jia Ding System.

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Patron only: A look into an interesting battle account

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Chong Feng Lei Dian Che (衝鋒雷電車)

From left to right: front view, side view and rear view of Chong Feng Lei Dian Che, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Chong Feng Lei Dian Che (衝鋒雷電車, lit. 'Assault lightning cart'), also known as Chong Feng Huo Che (衝鋒火車, lit. 'Assault fire cart'), was yet another war wheelbarrow designed by Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨). True to its namesake, Chong Feng Lei Dian Che had a more offensive role compared to its smaller cousin. Specifically, it was a close-range incendiary attack weapon that functioned both as a mobile mantlet to protect sappers as they close in to their target under enemy fire, as well as being the primary incendiary weapon itself.

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Duo Qian Fang Pai (奪鉛防牌)

MINOR UPDATE JUNE 28, 2023

Drawing of a Duo Qian Fang Pai (highlighted), from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

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