Ming Chinese cavalry tactics — Part 2

In my previous blog post, I briefly touched some of the tactics used by Ming cavalry against their nomadic enemies. In this one, I will delve deeper and discuss a formation used in Dao Chao (搗巢) operation, or more specifically, the formation used during the return trip of such an operation.

Jiao Lu Chao Chu Bing Zhen (剿虜巢出兵陣, lit. 'Barbarian nest suppression mobilisation formation')

Drawing of Jiao Lu Chu Bing Zhen Tu, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Infantry formations of the Imjin War — Part 1

1. Zhejiang infantry formation

『遂命諸技, 一時呈技, 隊長在前, 橙牌居次, 砲手又居次, 筤筅、長搶、三枝搶, 又次次居之, 迭相進退, 左旋右抽, 各臻其妙。』

"(He) then ordered various branches to perform (their) skills together, captain at the front, (rattan) shields formed the next rank, gunners formed the rank after next, and Lang Xian, pikes, tridents formed subsequent ranks. Then (they) arrayed in intervals (and) advanced and retreated by turn, spun left and drawn right, each had its own ingeniousness."

— Korean description of Ming infantry formation under Chen Yin (陳寅) during a military demonstration.

『南兵每隊原有銅鍋外，每名椰瓢一箇，每隊斧二把，鎬頭一把。除銃兵牌手原有腰刀外，其筅、鎗、鎲手各要快利腰刀一把，不拘一式。狼筅鎲兵各帶火箭十枝。』

“Beside the copper pot originally given to every Southern troop squad, every (soldier) (should be given) a coconut ladle, every squad (should be given) two axes (and) one pickaxe. Beside the swords originally owned by gunners and shieldbearers, every other Lang Xian, pike, and Tang Pa troop should be given a sharp sword, irrespective of the types (of swords). Every Lang Xian and Tang Pa troop (should) carry ten rockets.”

— Excerpt of Jing Lue Fu Guo Yao Bian (《經略復國要編》), detailing various equipment provided to Ming Southern troops during the first invasion.

Conjectured Imjin War-era Ming Southern infantry formation. This image is cropped, edited and pieced together from various Ming military treatises and training manuals by myself.

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Patron only: Square formation of Xu Lun (許論) — EXTRA: Contingency formation

The final part of the square formation series, covering Xu Lun's countermeasure against Mongol surprise attack.

This blog post is exclusive to my Patrons and can be accessed here. If you like my work so far, please support me via Patreon!

Other blog posts in my Square Formation series:

Square formation of Xu Lun — Part 1

Square formation of Xu Lun — Part 2

Square formation of Xu Lun — Part 3

Square formation of Xu Lun — EXTRA (Patron-only content)

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Square formation of Xu Lun (許論) — Part 3

Xu Lun's War Cart Formation

While Xu Lun (許論) obviously preferred cheval de frise over war carts, he also understood that his army could not rely on just one type of mobile obstacle and tactic. As thus, he also devised a war cart formation in case his army was required to fight in a more conventional way.

Organisation and Equipment

Xu Lun did not discuss the organisation and equipment of his war cart formation in detail, as it was simply adapted from his original square formation. Instead of assigning three Ju Ma (拒馬) to every forty-five infantry, a war cart, which could be a Qing Che (輕車), a Zhan Che (戰車), or some other types, was assigned to every seventy-five infantry. Additionally, a supply cart was given to every twenty-five support personnel. As such, a 3,000-strong army would own twenty-four war carts as well as twelve supply carts. The seventy-five troops unit consisted of twenty-five spearmen, twenty-five archers (Xu Lun included crossbowmen this time), and twenty-five handgonners.

Cavalry arm of the war cart formation was largely unchanged, although some cavalrymen fought dismounted in the new formation.

Formation and Tactics

Simplified drawing of Xu Lun's new formation. From 'Chou Bian Zuan Yi (《籌邊纂議》)'

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Square formation of Xu Lun (許論) — Part 2

Variant Formations

While hollow square was the most used formation to defend against cavalry, there were situations where it'd be better to deploy into other formations. Besides the square, Xu Lun (許論) also devised many variant formations for different terrains, as will be shown below:

Chang Zhen (長陣, lit. 'Long formation')

Xu Lun's line formation, from 'Chou Bian Zuan Yi (《籌邊纂議》)'.

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Square formation of Xu Lun (許論) — Part 1

Up until this point, I've mostly discussed about various tactics and formations of Ming Southern troops, which focused on small unit tactics to counter the decentralised and extremely unpredictable Wokou. While undoubtedly effective for their intended purpose, Small unit tactics was clearly ill-suited for large scale battle against a serious and more numerous enemy, and should not be taken as being representative of Ming battle tactics as a whole. Ming army faced entirely different circumstances and challenges in the North, and devised entirely different tactics and formations to meet these challenges.


Xu Gong Po Lu Xin Zhen (許公破虜新陣, lit. 'Lord Xu's new barbarian-breaking formation') was a military formation devised by Xu Lun (許論), governor-general of Ji-Liao. Unlike other formations previously discussed in this blog, Xu Lun was not a particularly celebrated or exceptional general (he is remembered for being the first to draw a detailed map of the Great Wall, rather than his military achievement, although he did have several victories against the Mongols under his belt), and his formation was also relatively simple and without complicated manoeuvre or unusual equipment. As such, Xu Lun's square formation can serve as a useful baseline for exploring the tactics and formations of other Ming Northern troops.

Organisation

Xu Lun's formation comprised of 3,000 troops (without factoring in command staff, standard bearers, signalers, general's retinues etc.), subdivided into three arms: infantry, cavalry, and support personnels. The organisations of different branches of Xu Lun's formation were as follow:

Infantry

Military unit	Rough modern equivalent	Troops	Support personnel	Total
Zhen (陣)	Regiment	1800/4 Shao	200	2000
Shao (哨)	Battalion	450/10 Dui	50	500
Dui (隊)	Platoon	15 spear/glaivemen 15 archers 15 handgonners	5	50
Wu (伍)	Team	5	-	5

Cavalry

Military unit	Rough modern equivalent	Troops	Support personnel	Total
Zhong Jun (中軍)	Battalion	900/4 Bu	100	1000
Bu (部)	Company	225/5 Dui	25	250
Dui (隊)	Platoon	45 cavalry	5	50

Support Personnel (both infantry and cavalry)

Type	Troops
Tang Ma (塘馬)	50 mounted scouts
Tuo Ying (䭾贏)	100 porters (with mules)
Za Chai (雜差)	150 camp followers

Overall

Branch	Troops
Infantry	1800
Cavalry	900
Support Personnel	300

Equipment

The entirely of Xu Lun's formation was build around one crucial equipment: Ju Ma (拒馬), or cheval de frise. Xu Lun considered Ju Ma to be more convenient, more mobile and deployable everywhere, thus preferable to war carts.

Blueprint of Xu Lun's Ju Ma Qiang, from 'Chou Bian Zuan Yi (《籌邊纂議》)'.

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Qi Ji Guang's Che Ying (車營) — Part 2

Tactics

Drawing of a Pian Xiang Che, from 'Lian Bing Shi Ji (《練兵實紀》)'.

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Shield formation of Luo Gong Chen (羅拱辰) — Part 2

UPDATED DECEMBER 08, 2021

Conjectured Luo Gong Chen's full formation. Alternatively, shieldmen (both light and heavy), pikemen and archers (both bow and crossbow) may form only three ranks, similar to his original formation. This image is doctored and pieced together from 'Wu Bian Qian Ji (《武編前集》), 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)', 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)' and 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)' by myself.

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Yu Da You's battle formations

Although Yu Da You (俞大猷) was not as well-known as the legendary Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光), especially to modern audience, during his time he was a renowned commander and celebrated hero, and every bit as capable as Qi Ji Guang, if not moreso. Yu Da You's tactics and formations had profound influence over commanders and tacticians that came after him, including Qi Ji Guang and Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟).

Basic Tactic

Unlike Qi Ji Guang, who had a relatively smooth rise to prominence, Yu Da You's military career was nothing short of miserable. He frequently faced obstacles and hostilities from within and without the Ming court, his contributions intentionally downplayed or stolen by others, and his achievements rewarded with punishments. As such, Yu Da You did not have the luxury of raising, equipping and training a fresh army like what Qi Ji Guang did with Qi Jia Jun (戚家軍), and had to make do with whatever troops assigned to him at the time. Such was the charisma and capacity of the legendary commander that he was always able to turn a ragtag bunch of misfits into formidable warriors and disciplined soldiers.

It was also due to this circumstance that Yu Da You did not go into detail about equipment for his formations. Any and every kinds of weapons could be used, although Yu Da You preferred shorter polearms such as Hu Cha (虎叉, tiger fork), Tang Pa (鎲鈀) and Gou Lian Dao (鈎鐮刀), probably because he himself was a quarterstaff master of legendary calibre. The smallest tactical unit in Yu Da You's battle formations was Dui (隊) of five troops. A basic formation consisted of five Dui working together, although it could be upscaled or downscaled as needed.

Die Zhen (疊陣, lit. 'Stacked formation')

A Die Zhen, from 'Zheng Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

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Shield formation of Luo Gong Chen (羅拱辰) — Part 1

Conjectured image of Luo Gong Chen's shield formation. Image is cropped and doctored from 'Wu Bian Qian Ji (《武編前集》)', 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)' and 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 5

Ying-level Formations

Ying (營) was the largest tactical unit in the army of Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟), although administratively Da Jun (大軍) was the largest unit. A Ying consisted of five Bu (部) plus ninety-nine support personnels (on top of what Bu already had), led by a Jiang Guan (將官).

Fang Ying (方營, square regiment)

Layout of one corner of Fang Ying, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. 

Fang Ying was the largest square formation in Xu Guang Qi's army. It could be formed from Fang Wu (方伍), Yuan Yang Wu (鴛鴦伍) or Yi Zi Ping Wu (一字平伍).

Every troops in the formation was standing five chi apart from his comrades. The formation occupied a space of two hundred eighty by two hundred eighty chi. Like its Bu-level counterpart, this number could be adjusted.

Yuan Ying (圓營, round regiment)

Layout of one corner of Yuan Ying, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'.

Yuan Ying was the circle formation for Ying-level tactical unit and the upscaled version of Yuan Bu (圓部).

Every troops in the formation was standing four chi apart from his comrades. The formation had a circumference of one thousand four hundred and forty chi and diameter of four hundred and eighty chi. It could also be adjusted when the regiment was not at its full strength.

Qu Ying (曲營), Zhi Ying (直營) and Rui Ying (銳營)

Xu Guang Qi only briefly discussed the remaining formations and did not provide any illustrations, as these formations were directly upscaled from their Bu-level counterparts.

Verdict

Xu Guang Qi's army, if successfully raised, would certainly be a force to be reckoned with. However, given the financial situation of late Ming Dynasty, one cannot help but think that Xu Guang Qi's vision of raising such an elite (and expensive) army was simply too idealistic. Even if, against all odds, he succeeded, the new army would most likely face extremely heavy attrition immediately due to rampant peasant rebellions as well as Manchu threat.

While dual role or even multi-role troops were quite common in oriental warfare, Xu Guang Qi's suggested loadout (which would put even Double Armed Man to shame) was probably too extreme and would heavily burden his troops. Worse still, even with all these heavy equipment, the Manchus still held advantage over Xu Guang Qi's army in terms of numbers, equipment (armours, cold weapons, war wagons and bow design), mobility, experience and military leadership.

Other blog posts in my De Sheng Bing series:

Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 4
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 5

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 4

Bu-level Formations

Most of the Bu (部) formations were simply multiple Shao (哨) formations assembled together, as such, Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟) only discussed some of the formations in detail. A Bu consisted of five Shao plus nineteen support personnels (on top of what Shao already had), led by a Qian Zong (千總).

Fang Bu (方部, square battalion)

Layout of a Fang Bu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Wu, circles with black dots represent platoon leaders and four porters, double circles represent company leader with four support personnels, and the bolded double circle with black dot represents battalion leader.

Fang Bu was the square formation for Bu-level tactical unit. It could be formed from Fang Wu (方伍), Yuan Yang Wu (鴛鴦伍) or Yi Zi Ping Wu (一字平伍).

Every troops in the formation was standing five chi apart from his comrades. The formation occupied a space of one hundred twenty by one hundred twenty chi, although this number could be adjusted as the battalion would not always be at its full strength.

Yuan Bu (圓部, round battalion)

Layout of a Yuan Bu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'.

Yuan Bu was the circle formation for Bu-level tactical unit and the upscaled version of Yuan Shao (圓哨).

Every troops in the formation was standing four chi apart from his comrades. The formation had a circumference of five hundred and seventy-six chi and diameter of one hundred and eighty-four chi. Like its square counterpart, it could be adjusted when the battalion was not at its full strength.

Qu Bu (曲部, crooked battalion)

Layout of a Qu Bu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'.

Qu Bu was the crooked formation for Bu-level tactical unit. Unlike its smaller cousins, Qu Bu could be formed from Yuan Yang Wu in addition of previous sub-unit formations.

Like all crooked formations, it did not occupy a fixed area.

Zhi Bu (直部, straight battalion)

Zhi Bu was the straight formation for Bu-level tactical unit. It was assembled from several Zhi Shao (直哨), either in one large column, line formation, or two-by-two square (consisted of only four Shao).

Xu Guang Qi did not provide illustration for this formation.

Rui Bu (銳部, sharp battalion)

Layout of a Rui Bu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'.

Rui Bu was the rhombic formation for Bu-level tactical unit. It was formed by two Rui Shao (銳哨) in Fen He Shi (分合勢) as vanguard and rearguard, two Shao in Yuan Yang Wu facing left and right directions, and one Shao along with porters and battalion leader at the centre of the formation.

Like other Bu-level formations, Rui Bu formation could be adapted according to its current strength. If formed with only two Shao, the middle part was omitted.

Other blog posts in my De Sheng Bing series:

Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 4
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 5

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 3-2

Yi Zi Shao (一字哨, lit. ''One' ideograph company)

Layout of a Yi Zi Shao formed from Fang Wu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Fang Wu. 

Layout of a Yi Zi Shao formed from Yuan Yang Wu, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》).' Note: Two vertical black lines represent one Yuan Yang Wu.

Yi Zi Shao was the line formation for Shao-level tactical unit. It could be formed from either Fang Wu (方伍) or Yuan Yang Wu (鴛鴦伍). Porters, support personnels and company leader were positioned behind the line.

Shao-level Unit Rotation

As the number of troops increased, unit rotation also became more complex. Rotating unit was no longer the relatively simple affair of switching between front line troops and reserves, but complex intra-unit manoeuvre.

Er Zi Shao (二字哨, lit. ''Two' ideograph company')

Er Zi Shao Fang Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Fang Wu.

Er Zi Shao Fang Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Fang Wu.

Er Zi Shao Zhi Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Two vertical black lines represent one Yuan Yang Wu.

Er Zi Shao Zhi Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Two vertical black lines represent one Yuan Yang Wu.

Er Zi Shao Ping Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Horizontal black lines represent Ping Wu.

Er Zi Shao Ping Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Horizontal black lines represent Ping Wu.

Er Zi Shao was the upscaled version of Er Zi Dui (二字隊), it could be formed from either Fang Wu, Yuan Yang Wu or Ping Wu (平伍), and could employ both rotation methods. As the formation would become very wide if formed normally, distance between sub-units could be reduced slightly.

San Zi Shao (三字哨, lit. ''Three' ideograph company')

San Zi Shao Fang Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Fang Wu.

San Zi Shao Fang Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent Fang Wu.

San Zi Shao Zhi Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Two vertical black lines represent one Yuan Yang Wu.

San Zi Shao Zhi Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Two vertical black lines represent one Yuan Yang Wu.

San Zi Shao Ping Wu rotating using Chou method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Horizontal black lines represent Ping Wu.

San Zi Shao was a new three-line formation devised by Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟) for Shao-level tactical unit. Unlike other formations, San Zi Shao was a detachment formation as it consisted of only fifteen sub-units (company leader and the rest of the sub-units stayed behind). It could be formed from either Fang Wu, Yuan Yang Wu or Ping Wu, and could employ both rotation methods. It could even use two rotation methods simultaneously.

Zheng Zi Shao (正字哨, lit. ''Straight' ideograph company')

Zheng Zi Shao Ping Wu rotating using Die method, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Horizontal black lines represent Ping Wu.

Zheng Zi Shao was another three-line formation devised by Xu Guang Qi. Similar to San Zi Shao, it was also a detachment formation, but mostly employ Die (叠) rotation method.

Other blog posts in my De Sheng Bing series:

Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-1
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 3-2
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 4
Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing — Part 5

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 3-1

Shao-level Formations

At Shao (哨) level, the formations of Xu Guang Qi (徐光啟) became even more complex. A Shao consisted of five Dui (隊) and four support personnels, led by a Shao Zong (哨總).

Fang Shao (方哨, square company)

Layout of a Fang Shao, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'. Note: Empty circles represent troops, circles with black dots represent porters, circles with  chinese numbers represent platoon leaders, and a slightly larger circle with black dot represents company leader. 

Fang Shao was the square formation for Shao-level tactical unit. It was scaled up from Fang Dui (方隊). Four Dui guarded the four corners of the formation and one additional Dui positioned at the centre to protect company leader.

The formation could be formed from either Fang Wu (方伍), Yuan Yang Wu (鴛鴦伍) or Yi Zi Ping Wu (一字平伍). It occupied a space of fifty by fifty chi.

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 2

Dui-level Formations

Dui-level formations were scaled up from Wu-level formations. It consisted of four Wu (伍) and four porters, led by a Dui Zhang (隊長). From Dui-level onward, these formations became gradually more complex.

Fang Dui (方隊, square platoon)

Layouts of Fang Dui, from 'Xuan Lian Tiao Ge (《選練条格》)'.

Fang Dui was the square formation for Dui-level tactical unit. Unlike its smaller counterpart, Fang Dui was a defensive formation similar to a hollow square. Twenty-five troops were deployed inside a five chi by five chi square (it was actually more compact than its Wu-level counterpart), with all their weapons pointing outward. Platoon leader was positioned inside the square, surrounded by four porters. If the square was formed without porters, then the formation became slightly more flexible, occupying a six chi by six chi square. Every Wu inside the square was deployed in Er Zi Ping Wu (二字平伍) formation.

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Xu Guang Qi's De Sheng Bing (得勝兵) — Part 1

Portrait of Xu Guang Qi currently kept at Guangqi Park, Shanghai.

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Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 5

Other war carts in Yu Da You's division

Du Lun Che (獨輪車) was not the only type of war cart in the war cart division. Yu Da You (俞大猷) also designed several other war carts to be used together with Du Lun Che.

Shuang Lun Zhan Che (雙輪戰車, lit. 'Two wheeled war cart')

Basic layout of Shuang Lun Zhan Che, from 'Zhen Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

Shuang Lun Zhan Che was more stable and compact that its one wheeled counterpart. It was pushed by six crews instead of eight, with two of the pushers stationed inside the cart. Yu Da You mentioned that it had the same armament as Du Lun Che, however the illustration shows that it had seven spearheads instead of the usual four.

Shuang Lun Liang Che (雙輪糧車, lit. 'Two wheeled grain cart')

Basic layout of Shuang Lun Liang Che, from 'Zheng Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

Shuang Lun Liang Che was the supply cart of the war cart division. It was  almost identical to Shuang Lun Zhan Che, except slightly smaller and only had five spearheads. It was not known whether this supply cart was armed with firearms or not.

Xin Zhi Shuang Lun Zhan Che (新製雙輪戰車, lit. 'New model two wheeled war cart')

Basic layout of the Xin Zhi Shuang Lun Zhan Che, from 'Zheng Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

After the success of war cart at Datong Defence Region (大同鎮), Yu Da You also tried to introduce the war cart to Jing Ying (京營, lit. 'Capital Regiment') stationed at the capital. He succeeded in raising a sixty thousand strong war cart army in his elderly years.

Xin Zhi Shuang Lun Zhan Che was the war cart designed for imperial guards. It was slightly larger than its Datong Defence Region counterparts, had two wooden screens instead of leather shields, and came equipped with five spearheads and three Fo Lang Ji (佛狼機) cannons. It also had two iron chains that were used to link multiple war carts together.

Other blog posts in my Du Lun Che series:

Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 1
Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 2
Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 3
Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 4
Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 5

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Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 4

Entire war cart regiment was known as Da Ying (大營, large regiment), consisted of thirteen Xiao Ying (小營), or one hundred and sixty-nine war carts. With such a large number of war carts operating together, the regiment no longer had to be always on the defensive. Instead Yu Da You (俞大猷) opted for an aggressive tactics that bring the fight to their enemy.

Large Unit Tactics

Yu Da You's war cart formation (large), from 'Zheng Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

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Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 3

Circling up the wagons

Defensive formation of war wagons was fairly straightforward: war wagons were deployed into a rectangle or circle to form a makeshift fortification. However, owing to its lighter weight, the war carts of Yu Da You (俞大猷) could maintain some mobility even after a defensive circle was formed. This was very crucial to Yu Da You's war cart regiment, as Mongol horsemen were simply too fast and too unpredictable. A mobile defensive circle was a temporary defensive formation that protected the army so that it could relocate to a favourable position and deploy into a proper wagon fort.

Yu Da You drafted the following formations based on a medium sized battlegroup consisted of seven Xiao Ying (小營), or ninety-one war carts.

Battlegroup on the march: War cart battlegroup formed into a long column, with mounted scouts riding ahead and behind the formation.

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Yu Da You's Du Lun Che (獨輪車) — Part 2

Yu Da You (俞大猷) organised his war cart regiment to be able to functions at different tactical levels. The smallest military unit in Yu Da You's war cart regiment capable of independent operations was Xiao Ying (小營, small battalion), consisted of thirteen war carts.

Small Unit Tactics

Yu Da You's war cart formation (small) at its initial position, from 'Zheng Qi Tang Ji (《正氣堂集》)'.

As the smallest operational unit in the war cart regiment, Xiao Ying was geared towards small scale engagement, namely to engage and defeat small numbers of Mongol skirmishers or raiders looking for plunder. As such, mobility and firepower were far more important than forming impenetrable defensive formation to defeat an enemy that frequently employed hit-and-run tactics and would not hesitate to retreat at the first sign of trouble. Xiao Ying did not form into wagon fort (Yu Da You thought that defensive formation should be left for larger unit) but deployed in checkerboard formation to maximise the firepower of Fo Lang Ji (佛狼機) cannons.

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