Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (國初三眼鎗) and Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (國初雙頭鎗)

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (left) and Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (centre), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (國初三眼鎗, lit. 'Founding-era three-eyed spear') and the Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (國初雙頭鎗, lit. 'Founding-era double-headed spear') were two elusive firearms mentioned by the mysterious old Daoist priest whom the Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) met in front of the Gongde Temple (功德寺). 

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Zhao Shi Zhen's handgonnes

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Although originally an advocate of universal adoption of matchlock firearms, Ming Dynasty firearm specialist and inventor Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) later reconsidered his views after a chance meeting and and conversation with a mysterious Daoist priest in front of the Gongde Temple (功德寺) while on a fowling trip on Kunming Lake. Thereafter, he adopted a more nuanced position and began to seriously explore various advantages that traditional Chinese handgonnes had to offer, and to refine and improve them.

Ma Shang San Yan Chong (馬上三眼銃, lit. 'Horseback three-eyed gun')

Drawing of a Ma Shang San Yan Chong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Known in full as the Xin Gai Ma Bu Xiang Yi San Yan Qiang (新改馬步相宜三眼鎗, lit. 'Newly modified three-eyed spear suitable on foot and on horseback'), this weapon was Zhao Shi Zhen's improved design of the classic San Yan Chong (三眼銃), which he developed just as the classic San Yan Chong began to see widespread adoption by the Ming military.

The biggest improvement made by Zhao Shi Zhen was replacing the original barrel of the San Yan Chong—which was typically made from three cast iron barrels forge-welded/cast together, making it top heavy and prone to overheating—with his own design, which used three separate longer barrels forged in the same way as matchlock gun barrels (i.e., rolled from skelp or iron strips and hammer-welded along a seam for a stronger, more uniform tube, double-layered for better integrity, plus individual screw-in breech plugs), all mounted on a grooved wooden bedding. This arrangement reduced the weapon's overall weight for easier handling, improved balance through the lighter construction, and allowed for easier maintenance and replacement of individual barrels.

Various components of the Xin Gai Ma Bu Xiang Yi San Yan Qiang, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen also mounted a tanged blade and disc guard to the butt of the weapon, transforming the Ma Shang San Yan Chong into a versatile hybrid firearm. The tanged blade allowed the user to wield the weapon as a close-quarters polearm for thrusting and slashing after discharging the barrels, with the barrels themselves serving as a counterweight for better balance. Meanwhile, the heavy clustered barrels themselves could serve as an improvised bludgeon for blunt strikes, providing a fallback option where reloading wasn't feasible.

Furthermore, Zhao Shi Zhen tailored the weapon into two variants to accommodate different combat roles. The infantry version featured a longer overall length of approximately 5 chi 5 cun, while the cavalry version was shorter, measuring around 4 chi 4 cun.

Xian Chong (鍁銃, spade gun) and Jue Chong (镢銃, hoe gun)

Highlighted Xian Chong (above) and Jue Chong (below), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen further adapted the Ma Shang San Yang Chong by replacing its tanged blade with spade- or hoe-shaped heads in specialized variants, known as Xian Chong and Jue Chong respectively. Both variants retained the firearm's volley capability while while serving as practical tools for frontier engineering.

San Shen Tang (三神鎲, lit. 'Three divine Tangpa')

Drawing of a San Shen Tang and its detachable matchlock trigger, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The San Shen Tang can be considered to represent Zhao Shi Zhen's further refinement of the Ma Shang San Yan Chong, as it went beyond merely accommodating different combat roles for infantry and cavalry to also adapt to the habits of soldiers from both southern and northern China.

The primary modification made by Zhao Shi Zhen was the incorporation of a detachable matchlock trigger mechanism—likely borrowed from the Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃)— which enabled the weapon to be braced and aimed like a matchlock gun by soldiers already familiar with such firearms, particularly those from southern China (although its accuracy still fell somewhat short of that of a true matchlock's), while retaining the flexibility to be used like a traditional handgonne by soldiers unfamiliar with matchlocks, particularly those from northern China. A second key modification was the replacement of the tanged blade of Ma Shang San Yan Chong with the head of a pronged Tang Pa (鎲鈀), which was far more versatile on a shorter polearm than a simple spearhead.

Top: A soldier aiming a trigger-attached San Shen Tang. Bottom: A soldier using a Ma Shang San Yan Chong on horseback. From 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

In a sense, the San Shen Tang can be considered a simpler and more practical successor of the Xun Lei Chong.

Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃)

Bottom and side view of Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong was a very unusual double-barrelled handgonne configured like a tonfa or arm shield.

Click here for more information about this handgonne.

Huo Dan Tong (火彈筒, lit. 'Fire bullet tube')

Drawing of a Huo Dan Tong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'

The Huo Dan Tong was a hand-mortar-style flare gun and one of the earliest of its kind in the world, predating the Very pistol by nearly three centuries and being predated only by the flare launcher of the Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃), which was also designed by Zhao Shi Zhen.

Click here for more information about this flare gun.

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Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃)

Bottom and side view of Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Among the many ingenious and unconventional firearms crafted by the renowned Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), the Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃, lit. 'Infantry Winged Tiger Gun') stood out as particularly enigmatic and elusive.

Unlike Zhao Shi Zhen's other designs, which he described in detail in his writings, this peculiar weapon survived only through two illustrations in his work, as well as a single brief, off-hand remark—that it was suitable only for use in Southern China—leaving its exact design, function, and mechanism largely unknown, most likely because any fuller written description has been lost to time.

Nevertheless, while any description must remain conjectural due to the absence of Zhao Shi Zhen’s documentation, the two surviving illustrations allow us to make an educated guess on the nature of this weapon.

From the illustrations, the Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong appeared to be a forearm-mounted firearm in a configuration similar to a tonfa. It featured a grip handle with a hand guard near the forward end of the assembly, though it was unclear whether the grip was oriented perpendicular to the barrel (resembling the classic tonfa’s cross-handle) or horizontal (resembling a shield grip). Complementing the grip was an elbow loop that enabled the firearm to be strapped or braced securely along the forearm.

The Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong incorporated two gun barrels aligned side by side and running slightly longer than the length of the forearm, with their muzzles positioned at the rearward end (in the direction of the elbow when braced). These were handgonnes without any mechanical trigger or lock mechanism, relying instead on primitive touch holes—likely located on the underside of the weapon—for ignition, making it, ironically, the only handgonne that Zhao Shizhen deemed suitable for use in Southern China only. Owing to its design, the user probably had to bend his elbow to aim the weapon and gain access to the touch holes before he could fire it—using a posture that might not have been too far removed from the modern sniper cradle position.

A soldier firing Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Interestingly, the weapon also incorporated a prominent spike projecting from the rearward end—in the same direction as its muzzles. Its precise purpose remained unclear, as it could scarcely have served for forward thrusting and was most likely intended to aid aiming.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's fire lances

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Although normally focused on more advanced weapons, Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) also devised several devised several comparatively simpler and more primitive fire lances. These functioned primarily as close-combat supplements to his advanced war carts, with their gunpowder bursts designed to disrupt Mongol cavalry charges and Wokou swordsmen, allowing the fire lancers to then finish off disorganised foes in melee easily.

Li Hua Qiang (梨花鎗)

Zhao Shi Zhen's Li Hua Qiang, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen's modified Li Hua Qiang was simply a slightly enhanced version of the original fire lance, featuring two additional fire tubes to to extend the duration of the flame and incendiary discharge.

Tian Peng Chan (天蓬鏟)

Zhao Shi Zhen's Tian Peng Chan (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen also modified the Tian Peng Chan, transforming it into a fire lance by attaching two Peng Tong (噴筒) to the shaft.

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Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛郎機)

Note: This blog post was originally part of my Breech-loading Cannons of the Ming Dynasty article. However, I decided to split (and slightly modify) this section into its own separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Drawing of a Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji, its gun carriage, and three loading chambers. From Qing period 'Yi Hai Zhu Chen (《藝海珠塵》)'.

The Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛狼機, lit. 'Hundred-bullet Fo Lang Ji') was an advanced variant of the heavier type of Fo Lang Ji breech-loading cannon designed by Ming firearms specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), who made several key improvements to the weapon. Namely, Zhao Shi Zhen lengthened and reinforced the gun barrel and mounted it on a wooden tiller, while also designing a wheeled gun carriage for the weapon.

The design of the wheeled gun carriage was where Zhao Shi Zhen truly demonstrated his genius. The unique gun carriage was of two-wheeled design (though the wheels were detached prior to firing), equipped with four swing-down stands, paired thills at the rear, along with two L-shaped anchoring irons at the front that anchored the carriage to the ground to counteract recoil.

In addition, Zhao Shizhen also fitted an iron bucket densely packed with cotton at the rear of the gun carriage to act as a recoil absorber, and replaced the deck planks of the gun carriage with wooden conveyor rollers, so that upon firing, the cannon slid rearward along the rollers against the bucket, compressing the cotton buffer to dampen the recoil—in essence, he had invented an early form of sliding recoil mechanism in the early 17th century.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Hu Tou Che (虎頭車) and Hu Yi Che (虎翼車)

Hu Tou Che (left) and Hu Yi Che (right) on the move, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'. Note that while the protective screen of Hu Tou Che has to be dismantled and transported on the wheelbarrow, the blanket of Hu Yi Che can be simply rolled-up and carried by a soldier.

Hu Tou Che (虎頭車) and Hu Yi Che (虎翼車) were two types of war wheelbarrows meant to be used together in a formation. They were comparatively simple designs devised by Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) before he went on to develop the more complex Ying Chang Che (鷹揚車).

Hu Tou Che (虎頭車, lit. 'Tiger head cart')

Drawing of a Hu Tou Che and its sloped protective screen (highlighted), from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Hu Tou Che was essentially a wheelbarrow of a fairly typical Chinese design, with two handle bars and a large single wheel placed at the bottom of the barrow. Unlike its civilian counterpart, Hu Tou Che was fitted with a front wooden rack to mount the protective screen, as well as two water tanks beside its wheel that doubled as counterweights. Its sloped protective screen—reminiscence of frontal armour of modern tank—was the most unique component of the war wheelbarrow. Made of two layers of wooden planks, plus a row of split bamboos nailed to its outward-facing side, the lightweight yet sturdy protective screen was constructed in such a way that there was empty space between its two wooden layers that could be filled with dirt (as a defence against firearms). It was usually equipped with two large gun ports designed to accommodate the powerful Ying Yang Pao (鷹揚砲), although some variants may have one additional gun port for either heavy Fo Lang Ji (佛朗機) or Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲).

Hu Yi Che (虎翼車, lit. 'Tiger wings cart')

Drawing of a Hu Yi Che and its protective blanket, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Hu Yi Che was similar to Hu Tou Che in most respects, only differ in that it had an additional set of handle bars, two wooden racks so that its protective screen could be hung on either side of the wheelbarrow, as well as only one water tank to act as counterbalance to its protective screen. In place of rigid wood-and-bamboo composite plating, Hu Yi Che used a large rectangular blanket as its protective screen, made in the exact same way as the canopy of Ju Ma San (拒馬傘).

Proposed wheelbarrow regiment

Hu Tou Che and Hu Yi Che deployed together, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen proposed a powerful regiment-sized unit for his war wheelbarrows, likely as a throwback to the then-active Ji Defence Region war cart regiments raised by Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光) decades before. A detailed breakdown of Zhao Shi Zhen's proposed regiment is available on my Patreon!

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Ju Ma San (拒馬傘) and Ruan Pai (軟牌)

Beside improving and designing various advanced firearms, Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) also came out with many innovative ideas to improve the effectiveness of other equipment. Ju Ma San (拒馬傘, lit. 'Horse-repelling umbrella') and Ruan Pai (軟牌, lit. 'Soft shield') were two such creations. Zhao Shi Zhen was well aware of the protective qualities and usefulness of soft fabric shields like Gun Bei (滾被), Ruan Bi (軟壁) and Gang Rou Pai (剛柔牌), but he also knew that flexible protective equipment can be awkward to handle and difficult to deploy, so he designed the aforementioned Ju Ma San and Ruan Pai as portable, convenient, and easy-to-use improvements to existing flexible shields.

Ju Ma San (拒馬傘)

Components of a Ju Ma San, from 'Xu Shen Qi Pu (《續神器譜》)'.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Ying Yang Che (鷹揚車)

UPDATED MAY 14, 2023

Left: Inner side of Ying Yang Che. Top Right: Outer side of Ying Yang Che. Bottom Right: A Ying Yang Che with folded protective screens for ease of transportation. From 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's Chong Feng Lei Dian Che (衝鋒雷電車)

From left to right: front view, side view and rear view of Chong Feng Lei Dian Che, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Chong Feng Lei Dian Che (衝鋒雷電車, lit. 'Assault lightning cart'), also known as Chong Feng Huo Che (衝鋒火車, lit. 'Assault fire cart'), was yet another war wheelbarrow designed by Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨). True to its namesake, Chong Feng Lei Dian Che had a more offensive role compared to its smaller cousin. Specifically, it was a close-range incendiary attack weapon that functioned both as a mobile mantlet to protect sappers as they close in to their target under enemy fire, as well as being the primary incendiary weapon itself.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's multipurpose shield

Left: Back view of the multipurpose shield, wheel turned sideways. Centre: Back view of the multipurpose shield. Right: Front view of the multipurpose shield. From 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Besides designing new and innovative firearms, Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士禎) also concerned himself with other aspects of Ming warfare. Notably, he was well aware of the common tactics and equipment employed by Ming armies of both the North and the South, and sought to improve their combat effectiveness.

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Weatherproofed arquebuses of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MAY 5, 2022

One of the major hurdles that prevented matchlock guns from being adopted on a large scale in North China was the complain that strong wind could blow away priming powder in the flash pan (an opinion apparently shared by Sir John Smythe from England), making the weapon very unreliable. Nevertheless, whilst the opinion had some merits, the advantages of choosing matchlock gun over primitive handgonne far outweighed any downside. To encourage the adoption of matchlock gun in North China, Ming Dynasty firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) designed two arquebuses that were less susceptible to the elements (and to refute and shut up the detractors).

Xuan Yuan Chong (軒轅銃, lit. 'Xuanyuan arquebus')

Named after the legendary forefather of all Chinese people, Xuan Yuan Chong was Zhao Shi Zhen's first matchlock gun not derived from any foreign designs. Drawing from his experience researching and reverse engineering European and Turkish matchlocks, Zhao Shi Zhen created a new weapon suitable for use in both the dry, windy North China, and the humid, rainy South China.

A Xuan Yuan Chong (top) and components of its rack and pinion mechanism (bottom), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

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Huo Jian Dao Liu Xing (火箭刀溜形)

Drawing of a Huo Jian Dao Liu Xing (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu Huo Wen (《神器譜或問》)'

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Huo Dan Tong (火彈筒)

Drawing of a Huo Dan Tong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The Huo Dan Tong was a hand-mortar-style flare gun designed by Ming Dynasty firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) to be used in conjunction with the Jiu Tou Niao (九頭鳥) during night fighting, shooting Huo Dan (火彈) to illuminate targets for the heavy matchlock gun.

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Dian Guang Jian (電光劒)

Drawing of a Dian Guang Jian, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Dian Guang Jian (電光劒, lit. 'Lightning sword') was an unusual fire lance designed by Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨). It was a formidable pole-sword with a broad, double-edged chopping blade mounted on a shaft with a disc guard, and came with two barrels—one handgonne and one Pen Tong (噴筒)—mounted on either flat of the blade.

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Multiple-barrel arquebuses of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MARCH 30, 2022

Zhen Die Chong (震疊銃, lit. 'Terror gun')

Drawing of a Zhen Die Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

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Breech-loading cannons of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MAY 7, 2022, minor update DECEMBER 31, 2025

Large Fo Lang Ji from the Nanjing City Wall Museum.

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機, lit. 'Frankish engine'), named after the Chinese name for Portuguese people (itself a Chinese transcription of related terms farang/farangi/ferenggi, used in the Muslim world to refer to White Europeans), was the Chinese version of breech-loading swivel gun, which they reverse-engineered from the Portuguese. 

Fo Lang Ji actually entered Chinese arsenal surprisingly early—the weapon came to the attention of the Ming court in October 1517, after a translator working on a Portuguese ship (likely a part of Fernão Pires de Andrade's fleet, which visited China in the same year) gifted a cannon and gunpowder formula to Gu Ying Xiang (顧應祥) during an anti-piracy operation. However, Imperial prince Zhu Chen Hao (朱宸濠) already manufactured some Fo Lang Ji in secret as early as May 1517 in preparation for his rebellion two years later, suggesting that the general populace may have learnt of this weapon well before the Ming court. In any case, after Sino-Portuguese relations turned sour, Ming navy sent to evict the Portuguese from Guangdong quickly found itself at the receiving end of this devastating weapon during Battle of Tunmen in 1521. In the ensuing blockade, Deputy Marine Commissioner (海道副使) Wang Hong (汪鋐), through military inspector He Ru (何儒) acting as an undercover agent, successfully enticed two Chinese sailors working for the Portuguese to defect. With the technical know-how acquired from these defectors, Wang Hong successfully reverse-engineered the Fo Lang Ji in a little under 40 days, then proceeded to use the new weapon to defeat the Portuguese. 

After the conflict, Wang Hong became a fervent advocate of the Fo Lang Ji and wrote several memorials to the throne to promote the weapon. In 1523, Beijing arsenal began to manufacture the Fo Lang Ji on an official basis, soon followed by Nanjing arsenal in 1524. By 1529, a mere seven years after the initial production run, virtually the entire country had been equipped with this new weapon. The Fo Lang Ji quickly supplanted older Chinese cannons and became the most important artillery piece in the Ming arsenal. 

Fo Lang Ji (佛郎機)

A standard Fo Lang Ji swivel gun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

While the basic design of Fo Lang Ji was virtually unchanged from its Portuguese predecessor, Chinese gunsmiths created a great number of variant designs of nearly every size, power, and platform imaginable, ranging from downsized handheld guns, to standard-sized models mounted on small gun carriages or saddle frames similar to zamburak, to heavier piece mounted on war carts, warships and gun emplacements.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji (鷹爪佛狼機, lit. 'Eagle talon Frankish engine')

Drawing of a Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji, from 'Wu Bei Ji Yao (《武備集要》)'.

Ying Zhua Fo Lang Ji was simply a small Fo Lang Ji mounted on a three chi tall iron spiked tripod (which gave the weapon its name).

Fei Shan Shen Pao (飛山神砲, lit. 'Flying mountain divine cannon')

Drawing of a Fei Shan Shen Pao, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》'.

Fei Shan Shen Pao was a medium-weight Fo Lang Ji with two pair of trunnions.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍, lit. 'Invincible great general')

Drawing of a Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, from 'Lian Bing Za Ji (《練兵雜紀》)'.

Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was a heavy breech-loading cannon primarily designed for close range anti-personnel purpose. A single blast from this cannon could rain death over a very large area in a manner not unlike a giant shotgun—each of its three chambers were loaded with one heavy stone ball and a whopping 365 iron pellets—although the stone ball was still capable of pulverising walls and buildings.

Weighing one thousand and fifty jin (619.5 kg or 1,366 lbs), Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was one of the heaviest cannons in Ming arsenal until the advent of Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲). Regrettably, while it was undoubtedly devastating, Wu Di Da Jiang Jun was actually slightly underpowered for a cannon of this size due to its breech-loading nature, relatively short barrel, and the fact that its projectile weight and black powder load were limited by the size of its chamber. These shortcomings eventually led to the development of lighter and more powerful Ye Gong Shen Chong (葉公神銃).

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao (無敵神飛砲, lit. 'Invincible divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, sometimes shortened to Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon'), was a slightly shortened naval variant of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun. Each of its three chambers were loaded with a heavy stone ball and 200 iron pellets, although iron pellets were sometimes omitted to increase the power of stone ball.

Like its land-bound counterpart, Wu Di Shen Fei Pao was the heaviest naval artillery available to Ming navy until the advent of Hong Yi Pao.

Shen Fei Pao (神飛砲, lit. 'Divine flying cannon')

Drawing of a Shen Fei Pao, from 'Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)'.

Recorded in seventeenth century military treatise Jun Qi Tu Shuo (《軍器圖說》)', Shen Fei Pao appears to be a streamlined and more powerful version of Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao, lacking the iron rings used for lifting the cannon found on Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, but came with gunsight-equipped, wrought iron chambers.

The largest "Mark 1" Shen Fei Pao was 8 chi (256 cm or 8'5") in length and 1,000 jin (590 kg or 1300 lbs) in weight. Its five chambers were 1 chi 5 cun (48 cm or 1'7") in length, 80 jin (47.2 kg or 104 lbs) in weight, and had a bore size of 7 cun (22.4 cm or 8.8"). They were typically loaded with either a heavy 25 jin (14.75 kg or 32.5 lbs) stone ball, or 200 stone pellets plus 500 iron pellets (but not both at the same time unlike Wu Di Da Jiang Jun/Wu Di Shen Fei Pao), propelled by 5 jin (2.95 kg or 6.5 lbs) of black powder.

Other variants

There were also many known models of Fo Lang Ji without accompanying illustrations. Examples include Ma Shang Fo Lang Ji (馬上佛郎機, lit. 'Horseman's Frankish engine') designed to be used on horseback, Lian Zhu Fo Lang Ji Pao (連珠佛朗機砲, lit. 'Rapid fire Frankish engine'), an iron double-ended Fo Lang Ji with shortened barrels, as well as Liu Xing Pao (流星砲, lit. 'Shooting star cannon'), a type of brass Fo Lang Ji with rectangular-shaped open breech and lengthened barrel.

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Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃)

MINOR UPDATE FEBRUARY 5, 2026

Drawing of a soldier firing Xun Lei Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

One of the most complex weapons developed by Ming Dynasty firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨),  and his signature work, the Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃, lit. 'Quick thunder gun') was a self-contained weapon system that incorporated a five-barrelled matchlock gun with a detachable trigger mechanism, a layered leather-and-cotton composite gun shield, an axe that doubled as a musket rest, and a spear with a flare launcher mounted on its butt—allowing adaptation to a variety of combat situations.

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Breech-loading arquebuses of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED JANUARY 7, 2022, minor update MAY 14, 2023

One of the major weaknesses of early black powder firearms was the abysmal firing rate. Chinese people certainly weren't strangers to this problem, and showed remarkable ingenuity in their attempts to solve the issue. The most prominent figure in the development of breech-loading matchlock gun was Ming firearms specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), who pioneered the idea of combining Fo Lang Ji (佛狼機) breech-loading swivel gun and matchlock gun into one weapon.

Che Dian Chong (掣電銃, lit. 'Lightning arquebus')

Variant 1

Drawing of a Che Dian Chong, from a Wanli period print of 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

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Matchlock firearms of the Ming Dynasty

UPDATED MAY 4, 2022, minor update NOVEMBER 10, 2023

A Ming Dynasty matchlock arquebus found in Xuzhou.

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Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Huo Jian Liu (火箭溜)

UPDATED APRIL 29, 2022

Drawing of a Huo Jian Liu and its rack-and-pinion matchlock mechanism (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

China was the first civilisation in the world to field rocket weaponry in warfare. Early rocket was nothing more than a simple, black powder-filled paper tube attached to the shaft of an arrow, hence the name Huo Jian (火箭, lit. 'Fire arrow'). Although devastating, primitive unguided rocket could not be aimed like a crossbow or arquebus due to limitations of its launching platforms, and thus had pretty bad accuracy. Chinese military innovators attempted to solve this problem by developing various types of multiple rocket launchers that could shoot large numbers of rockets at once. While this "spray and pray" approach alleviated the accuracy problem somewhat, it was also very wasteful.

During the late 16th century, Ming firearms specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) proposed a much more refined solution to early rocket's accuracy problem in the form of Huo Jian Liu (火箭溜, lit. 'Fire arrow slide'). Huo Jian Liu was, for all intents and purposes, a matchlock gun that shot rocket instead of the usual lead ball, and featured the same barrel, front and rear sight, shoulder stock as well as trigger as an ordinary musket. However, instead of a standard matchlock mechanism, Zhao Shi Zhen equipped the weapon with a Chinese rack and pinion matchlock mechanism identical to that of late Ming variant Lu Mi Chong (嚕密銃). To ensure gunner safety, the matchlock mechanism was mounted at the middle portion of the gun (farther away from the gunner), with a large gun shield installed behind it to deflect rocket backblast.

Huo Jian Liu allowed its user to aim and launch rocket with greater accuracy. It also had greater range, less recoil, and significantly faster rate of fire than typical musket (due to the elimination of pouring powder charge, loading and ramming the ball down the barrel, and priming the flash pan steps in the reloading process). On top of that, the gun was cheaper to manufacture, as it did not need a strong barrel to withstand high chamber pressure, nor ramrod (although this was offset by its more costly rocket ammunition).

Regrettably, Zhao Shi Zhen's invention failed to catch the attention of Ming government, and never went beyond prototype stage.

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