Patron only: Telling apart Chinese polearms — EXTRA: Armour-piercing awl and hanging moon spear

This blog post contains some extra information about Chinese polearms, which is exclusive to my Patrons and can be accessed here. If you like my content, please support me via Patreon!

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Telling apart Chinese polearms: a quick visual guide

UPDATED JANUARY 10, 2025

1) Ancient Chinese polearms (Warring States to Han Dynasty)

1.1) Common polearms

Various ancient Chinese polearms. It should be noted that these weapons are not to scale with each other. For example, the head of a Shu is much smaller than other polearms.

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Gou Lian (鈎鐮)

Drawing of a Gou Lian, from 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Gou Lian (鈎鐮, lit. 'Hook sickle') was a type of long polearm designed for naval use. Essentially a sharpened hook mounted on a one zhang five chi bamboo pole, Gou Lian was comparable in length to some Chang Qiang (長鎗). Gou Lian was used to hook enemy warship or cut off enemy cordage, as well as scooping up dead bodies from the water. Due to its softer bamboo shaft and heavier weight of the hook, it was unsuitable for land use.

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Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Chan (鏟)

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Fang Tian Hua Ji (方天畫戟)

Fang Tian Hua Ji (方天畫戟, lit. 'Square sky decorated halberd')

Drawing of a Fang Tian Ji (highlighted), from 'Si Zhen San Guan Zhi (《四鎮三關志》)'.

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San Jian Liang Ren Dao (三尖兩刃刀)

Drawing of a San Jian Liang Ren Dao (highlighted), from 'Si Zhen San Guan Zhi (《四鎮三關志》)'.

San Jian Liang Ren Dao (三尖兩刃刀, lit. 'Three points double edged blade'), also known as Er Lang Dao (二郎刀) due to its association with Chinese war deity Er Lang Shen (二郎神), was a versatile but underrepresented Chinese polearm.

Like its namesake, San Jian Liang Ren Dao had three points and two long, slightly flared cutting edges. The three points of San Jian Liang Ren Dao allowed the weapon to parry, or even bind, opponent's weapon effectively while retaining the ability to deliver powerful stabs, whereas its forward-weighted cutting edges rendered it a devastating chopping weapon.

Being symmetrical, San Jian Liang Ren Dao was also better balanced than other multipurpose polearms such as halberd.

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Gou Lian Dao (鈎鐮刀)

Drawing of a Gou Lian Dao, from 'Wu Bei Zhi (《武備志》)'.

Gou Lian Dao (鈎鐮刀, lit. 'Hook sickle glaive') was a Chinese polearm that resembled, but distinct from, Yan Yue Dao (偃月刀). Instead of a forward-pointing protrusion like that of Yan Yue Dao, Gou Lian Dao had a sharpened hook on the back of its blade pointing downwards.

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Yan Yue Dao (偃月刀)

Drawing of a Yan Yue Dao, from 'Chou Hai Tu Bian (《籌海圖編》)'.

Yan Yue Dao (偃月刀, lit. 'Reclining moon glaive'), also known as Chun Qiu Da Dao (春秋大刀, lit. 'Spring and autumn great glaive') or simply Da Dao (大刀, lit. 'Great glaive'), was arguably the most iconic Chinese polearm. Due of its association with legendary Chinese commander/war deity Guan Yu (關羽), it is also known as Guan Dao (關刀).

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Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀)

Like many Chinese weapons, the famous Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀, 'Horse-chopping sabre') has been subject to a lot of misinformations and misconceptions. Over the course of China's long history, the term had been applied to many different weapons, which led to confusion over the true origin and purposes of this weapon. 

However, upon closer inspection there are indeed traceable similarities between different iterations of Zhan Ma Dao/Jian. In general, they can be roughly grouped into three types:

Type A: Executioner's sword (Han–early Song period)

Very little is known about the horse chopper of this period. Based on its name ("Jian" instead of "Dao"), it is believed that the weapon was a double-edged sword, although its size and shape remain a mystery.

Han Dynasty Zhan Ma Jian (斬馬劍, lit. 'Horse-chopping sword')

Five surviving Han period Jian. All swords in this photo, save for the second one from the top, are designed for two-handed use, the longest one being 146 cm in length. All swords are currently kept at Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King, Guangzhou, China. It should be noted that none of these swords are explicitly stated to be Zhan Ma Jian, although an actual example (if any survives) should look quite similar to these swords.

More properly known as Duan Ma Jian (斷馬劍, lit. 'Horse-severing sword'), this weapon was actually a sword of state, made specifically for the emperor for ceremonial purpose and to execute treacherous officials. The sword is believed to acquire its name from the White Horse Oath (白馬之盟), in which a white horse was ritually slaughtered and its blood wiped on the participants' lips as a symbolism of the oath of loyalty and upholding the bloodline of Han emperor Liu Bang (劉邦). 

Contrary to popular misconceptions, the original meaning of Zhan Ma Jian was "a sword that is sharp enough to chop through a horse" rather than "a sword specifically designed to cut down horse".

Sui and Tang Dynasty Mo Dao (陌刀)

While not explicitly described as a horse chopper, Tang Dynasty Mo Dao had been compared to Han Dynasty Zhan Ma Jian, and later Song Dynasty texts also liken the Zhan Ma Dao to this weapon. Mo Dao was primarily carried by barrier troops to execute cowardly or deserting soldiers, but performed just as well as a battlefield weapon. It was often used alongside other heavy weapons such as war axes, quarterstaves, and flails, in defence as well as during siege and assault. Mo Dao was also one of the preferred close combat weapons of Tang archers and crossbowmen (Ming Chinese continued this practice of arming ranged troops with heavy polearms).

Many Mo Dao users were exceptionally strong individuals, but the most famous one was probably Tang commander Li Si Ye (李嗣業), who used the weapon to great effect to stop the pursuing Abbasid army after Tang army suffered a defeat at Battle of Talas.

To date, no surviving Mo Dao has been discovered. Drawing upon descriptions found in various Tang Dynasty texts, Mo Dao seems to be a type of double-edged chopping polearm, up to one zhang (118.1 in or 300 cm) in length and fifteen jin (22.48 pounds or 10.2 kg) in weight. It is also speculated that Japanese ōmi-yari (大身槍) either descended from, or was related to, this weapon.

Type B: Cleaver type (Song–Qing period)

Whether a two-handed sword or a polearm, horse choppers of this period inevitably had a long (usually three chi or more) cleaving blade that ended in very steep clip point or so-called "reverse tanto" point (although many Song Dynasty swords had a blunt square point instead). The blade could be straight (Song period) or slightly curved (Ming and Qing period). 

Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao

Photo of a Song Dynasty sword that matches the description of Zi Zhi Tong Jian Chang Bian. Note that the sword edge is facing downward. Image taken from Thomas Chen's website but original source unknown. 

Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao represented the long and unbroken Chinese tradition of using large, two-handed war swords as battlefield weapon dating back as early as Warring States period. Xu Zi Zhi Tong Jian Chang Bian (《續資治通鑑長編》) describes the weapon as a large two-handed sword with a three chi (93.6 cm) blade, one chi (31.2 cm) hilt, and a large ring pommel.

Unlike earlier Zhan Ma Jian and Mo Dao, Song Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao was mass-produced for the rank and file (there was even a special bureau that produced nothing but Zhan Ma Dao). It was also really designed with the intention to cut down heavily armoured cavalry.

Ming Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao

A Zhan Ma Dao (left) and a Yan Yue Dao (偃月刀) (right), from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

Sometimes known as Kan Dao (砍刀, lit. 'Chopping sabre'), Ming Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao was a glaive with a three chi (96 cm) blade, four chi (128 cm) shaft, and a butt spike. It could be distinguished from other Chinese glaives by its longer blade, clip point tip and lack of protrusion or hook on the back of the blade. This type of Zhan Ma Dao could be considered synonymous with Po Dao (朴刀), although not all Po Dao were Zhan Ma Dao.

Incidentally, Zhan Ma Dao was one of the few Chinese weapons that made an impression on contemporary Western observers. In his book titled Neglected Formosa ('t Verwaerlossde Formosa), Frederick Coyett described Koxinga's troops "wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man", a description that matches Zhan Ma Dao perfectly.

Although labelled as "Ming Dynasty" Zhan Ma Dao in this blog post, this type of polearm was used well into Qing period.

Type C: Ōdachi-inspired weapon (Ming–Qing period)

Clearly inspired by Japanese ōdachi (大太刀), which was adopted by Ming Chinese as Chang Dao (長刀), this type of Zhan Ma Dao had a long, gently curved blade and hilt designed for two-handed use. While not specifically designed as anti-cavalry weapon, Chang Dao was indeed used as such by Chinese troops, although the name change only happened during Qing period.

(It should be noted that the name change was rather more like a military designation of an existing weapon, similar to how AR-15 was designated as M16 by the US military.)

Qing Dynasty Lu Ying Zhan Ma Dao

Drawing of a Qing Dynasty Zhan Ma Dao, from 'Huang Chao Li Qi Tu Shi (《皇朝禮器圖式》)'.

Lu Ying Zhan Ma Dao was one of the several types of two-handed sabres issued to Lu Ying (綠營, Green Standard Army). It was essentially a Qing iteration of Ming period Chang Dao with minor modifications on size and fittings.

For those interested to learn more about Qing period Chinese two-handed sabres, here is a very good article: Chinese long sabers of the Qing dynasty

Other similar weapons

Qing Dynasty "Zhan Ma Jian"

A truly monstrous sword that dwarfed many actual polearms in length, this weapon had a long and wavy "flamberge" style blade mounted on a wooden shaft that was only slightly shorter than the blade. Its blade alone was longer than most Chinese jian.

As the sword was a non-regulation weapon and only a handful survived, it did not have an official name. Nevertheless, the sword has been casually referred to as Zhan Ma Jian and certainly looks the part.

Japanese Zanbatō (ざんばとう or 斬馬刀)

A modern nakamaki nōdachi being advertised as a zanbatō. Note the black wrapping at the lower third of the blade.

Contrary to popular misconception, there is no such thing as a Japanese zanbatō. "Zanbatō" is simply the Japanese pronunciation of Zhan Ma Dao and refers to the Chinese weapon. In fact, the term did not even enter common usage until 1970s.

In popular media, any sufficiently large Japanese sword, typically an ōdachi, nakamaki nōdachi (中巻野太刀, a nōdachi sword with the last portion of its blade wrapped in thin cord, which serves as a secondary grip similar to a zweihänder's ricasso/sub-hilt. It is the predecessor of nagamaki) or sometimes a bisentō (眉尖刀), can all be referred to as zanbatō.

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Po Dao (朴刀)

An ornate Po Dao once belonged to Taiping general Luo Da Gang (羅大綱). Private Collection.

Po Dao was a type of Chinese sword or glaive with a cleaving blade that usually ended in a very steep clip point. Po Dao came in one-handed, two-handed, equal handle to blade ratio, polearm and even a "bifurcated weapon" form, although the term generally refers to polearm version in common usage. It should be noted that the weapon's name should be written as "朴刀", even in traditional Chinese. It cannot be written as "樸刀".

Humble Origin

The weapon known as Po Dao first appeared during Song Dynasty. At the time it was also known as Po Dao (潑刀), Bō Dao (撥刀), Bó Dao (博刀 or 膊刀) and many other names. Essentially a weaponised agricultural tool, Po Dao was not considered a "military grade" regulation weapon and commonly found in the hands of militias, bandits, outlaws and rebels alike (and thus enjoyed unusually high exposure in literature, dramas and plays, which tend to portray civilian rather than military life).

Horse Chopper

A Po Dao (highlighted), also known as Zhan Ma Dao, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

It is not known exactly when, or why, long-handled Po Dao came to be known as Zhan Ma Dao (斬馬刀), although this may be related to Song general and Chinese national folk hero Yue Fei (岳飛) and his elite army, the Yue Jia Jun (岳家軍, lit. 'Army of House Yue'). Yue Fei and his army famously wielded a weapon known as Ma Zha Dao (麻紥刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped knife') to chop at vulnerable horse legs of the otherwise heavily armoured Jurchen cataphracts. While the length and form of Ma Zha Dao had been lost to the passage of time (although it is almost certainly a two-handed chopping polearm, a.l.a. Po Dao), Yue Fei's legendary exploits had profound influence on later Chinese military thinking. By Ming period, weapons such as Ma Zha Da Kang Dao (麻紥大砍刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped great chopping sabre') and Ma Zha Zhan Ma Dao (麻紮斬馬刀, lit. 'Linen-wrapped horse-chopping sabre') started to show up in Ming arsenal records, alongside regular Zhan Ma Dao. Polearm/glaive type Zhan Ma Dao also replaced Song-era two-handed swords as the most ubiquitous horse chopper.

Although Zhan Ma Dao had become a more recognisable name for Po Dao during Ming period, some Ming texts, such as the writings of general Yu Da You (俞大猷), still refers the weapon with its old name.

Cheng Zi Yi's modified Po Dao

Cheng Zi Yi's modified Po Dao and scabbard, from 'Wu Bei Yao Lue (《武備要略》)'.

Late Ming period military writer Cheng Zi Yi (程子頤) designed a two-handed sword version of Po Dao in order to make the weapon more compatible with Dan Dao Fa Xuan (單刀法選) techniques. By doing so, he effectively combined two types of Zhan Ma Dao (Type B and Type C) into one weapon.

The new weapon featured ridged cross-section and resembled both Dan Dao (單刀) and Song-era Zhan Ma Dao.

Qing Dynasty Po Dao

Different types of Qing Dynasty Po Dao. Top left: Lu Ying Pu Dao. Top mid: Lu Ying Kuan Ren Pian Dao. Top right: Lu Ying Kuan Ren Da Dao. Bottom left: Lu Ying Chuan Wei Dao. Bottom mid: Lu Ying Hu Ya Dao. Bottom right: Tiao Dao. Images taken from 'Qin Ding Da Qing Hui Dian Tu 《欽定大清會典圖》' and 'Huang Chao Li Qi Tu Shi (《皇朝禮器圖式》)'.

After the fall of Ming, many elements of former Ming military were absorbed into Qing military system and reorganised into either Lu Ying (綠營, Green Standard Army) or Han Jun (漢軍, lit. 'Han army', ethnic Han bannermen). These Han Chinese soldiers retained most of their traditional weapons and equipment, only minimally modified to adapt to the new military regulation.

Under Qing military regulation, Po Dao was divided into several subtypes based on their length and blade profile:

• Lu Ying Pu Dao (綠營撲刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army Pu Dao') was a rather short, one-handed version of Po Dao.
• Lu Ying Kuan Ren Pian Dao (綠營寬刃㓲刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army broad bladed slicing sabre') was a Po Dao with a handle of about equal length to its blade.
• Lu Ying Kuan Ren Da Dao (綠營寬刃大刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army broad bladed great glaive') was a standard polearm-length Po Dao.
• Lu Ying Chuan Wei Dao (綠營船尾刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army stern sabre') was named due to the blade shape's similarity to the stern of a ship. It was a two-handed sword that had a longer and sharpened clip point tip for better thrusting capability. 
• Lu Ying Hu Ya Dao (綠營虎牙刀, lit. 'Green Standard Army tiger tooth sabre') was a larger version of Chuan Wei Dao that had a roughly equal ratio of handle length to blade length.
• Teng Pai Ying Tiao Dao (藤牌營挑刀, lit. 'Rattan Shield Regiment lifting glaive') was a polearm-length version of Chuan Wei Dao with narrower blade. Unlike other weapons in this list, this weapon was issued to Han Bannermen that specialised in rattan shield tactics.

Late Qing period Shuang Shou Dai (雙手帶) and Tai Ping Dao (太平刀)

Mid-nineteenth century export painting depicting a militiaman armed with a Shuang Shou Dai. From Digital Collections of the New York Public Library. (Source: Kung Fu Tea)

As the once great Qing Empire aged and corruption began to run rampant, its hereditary military system also weakened and eventually collapsed. Militias and levies replaced professional soldiers as the main source of recruit, and brought with them many non-regulation weapons. Po Dao, which had its root in agricultural tool and civilian weapon, once again became one of the most common close combat weapons of the Qing army.

Late Qing period Po Dao were generally short polearms with roughly equal length handle and blade. As old regulations and names fall into disuse, these short polearms came to be known as Shuang Shou Dai (雙手帶, lit. 'Double hand carry'), even though the term originally referred to a type of two-handed sabre. After Taiping Rebellion broke out, this weapon gained yet another moniker "Tai Ping Dao (太平刀, lit. 'Taiping sabre')" due to its prevalence among Taiping rebels.

Republican long handled Da Dao (大刀) 

Chinese soldiers during the Second Sino-Japanese War, armed with Shuang Shou Dai-type Da Dao.

Throughout the entire Second Sino-Japanese War, Chinese forces often found themselves severely underequipped and had to outfit their soldiers with all sort of sabres, cleavers, and glaives. With little standardisation going on, these weapons were lumped together and collectively called Da Dao (大刀, lit. 'Great sabre') or sometimes Kan Dao (砍刀, lit. 'Chopping sabre') regardless of their length, shape and size. Some Shuang Shou Dai also saw service in the war as Da Dao, and techniques of Shuang Shou Dai became the basis of Da Dao drills.

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Tang Pa (鎲鈀)

Drawing of a military-style Tang Pa, from 'Bing Lu (《兵錄》)'.

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Unique weapon of the Ming Dynasty — Lang Xian (狼筅)

UPDATED SEPTEMBER 27, 2023

Drawing of a Lang Xian, from a Korean print of 'Ji Xiao Xin Shu (《紀效新書》)'.

Lang Xian (狼筅, can be written as 筤筅, lit. 'Wolf brush'), sometimes translated as "wolf bamboo" and "multiple tipped bamboo spear", was arguably the MOST uniquely Chinese weapon ever devised, and one of the most effective weapons if used right. Essentially a long bamboo spear with layers of branches still attached, there was much more to this unassuming weapon than meets the eye.

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