The Great General Cannon of the Ming Dynasty

Bombard-type Great General Cannon (bottom right) and its various sub-types. Illustration taken from 'Si Zhen San Guan Zhi (《四鎮三關志》)'. 

The Great General Cannon, known in Chinese as Da Jiang Jun Pao (大將軍砲), stood as one of the Ming Dynasty’s most powerful indigenously developed artillery pieces. The name encompassed a class of heavy cannons that evolved over the dynasty's course, with several distinct types emerging as a result of both improvements to and evolution of the original design, and the introduction of new designs that gained popularity and adopted the same name.

The principal variants that emerged under this name are examined in the sections below:

1. Cast Bronze Great General Cannon (Bombard Type)

(Early to mid-Ming Dynasty — up to around 1584)

The bombard-type Great General Cannon was representative of the early and original variant of indigenous muzzle-loading cannon. It was typically made from cast bronze, though occasionally from cast iron, and featured a roughly bottle-shaped profile.

A cast-bronze bombard, probably a "Shorty General", preserved in Xuzhou Museum.

The cannon featured a nearly untapered profile and lacked a flared muzzle, with several reinforcing rings cast integrally along its length to strengthen the barrel against the pressures of firing, and optional lugs for lifting rings similarly cast as part of the barrel for easier handling and positioning. At the rear, a bulbous section served as an enlarged powder chamber. At the base was a flat, flared foot, which enabled the cannon to stand vertically for cleaning and reloading — a standard practice for Chinese muzzle-loaders, which were handled upright rather than horizontally.

A rare cast-iron version of the bombard-type Great General Cannon, preserved at Dingzhou Ancient City. Source

The bombard-type Great General Cannons were graded hierarchically using a typical numerical system: the largest and heaviest cannon was designated Da Jiang Jun (大將軍, lit. 'Great General'), followed by Er Jiang Jun (二將軍, lit. 'Secondary General') or Sai Jiang Jun (賽將軍, lit. 'Near-matching General'), then San Jiang Jun (三將軍, lit. 'Tertiary General') or Ai Jiang Jun (矮將軍, lit. 'Shorty General'), reflecting descending tiers of length, weight, calibre, and firepower within the class.

A cast-iron "Shorty General" bombard, preserved at Dingzhou Ancient City. Source

Regrettably, most surviving cast bronze bombard-type Great General Cannons are small to medium sized, whereas ironically a handful of large-sized cast iron examples have survived despite iron being rarer in this form. This difference likely stems from bronze being more valuable and more easily re-smelted or recycled than iron. Based on surviving examples, bombard-type Great General Cannons range from 50 cm to 180 cm in length, 35 kg to 600 kg in weight, and 6 cm to 25 cm in bore size, although written records mention some as long as 7 chi 2 cun (roughly 230 cm). Nevertheless, from the surviving cast-iron specimens, lengths around 170 cm and bore sizes around 20 cm appear typical for full-sized bombard-type Great General Cannons.

1.1 Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍)

(Around 1560 — early seventeenth century)

The Wu Di Da Jiang Jun (無敵大將軍, lit. 'Invincible Great General') and its slightly smaller-bore naval/Southern China variant, the Wu Di Shen Fei Pao (無敵神飛砲, lit. 'Invincible Divine Flying Cannon'), represented a significant evolution from the original bombard-type Great General Cannon. These breech-loading designs drew direct inspiration from the Fo Lang Ji (佛朗機) guns — Portuguese-style breech-loaders that had spread from Europe to China in the early 16th century. Designed by the renowned Ming commander Qi Ji Guang (戚繼光), the Wu Di Da Jiang Jun retained much of the original barrel profile but replaced the bulbous powder chamber with an open breech to accept detachable, mug-shaped loading chambers, sacrificing some raw firepower in exchange for markedly easier handling and a substantially higher rate of fire. These chambers were typically forged from wrought iron and fitted with reinforcing hoops for added strength.

Since upright reloading was no longer necessary, the flared foot of the original bombard-type Great General Cannon was removed or, in some cases, replaced with an additional lug for lifting ring similar to those sometimes fitted on other parts of the barrel.

A Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, from 'Lian Bing Shi Ji (《練兵實紀》)'.

To date, no surviving Ming cannon has been definitively identified as a Wu Di Da Jiang Jun, even though numerous breech-loading cannons from the period — including some exceedingly heavy pieces — have survived. As a result, its precise dimensions, bore size, and shot weight remain largely unknown. Written records, however, give an approximate barrel weight of roughly 1,000 jin (about 597 kg), a chamber weight of roughly 50–150 jin (about 30–90 kg), and a powder charge of 4–6 jin of gunpowder (about 2.4–3.6 kg) per shot, indicating that it was scaled to match the heaviest class of bombard-type Great General Cannons. Unlike the earlier muzzle-loading bombard-types, the Wu Di Da Jiang Jun typically fired hundreds of iron pellets as its primary ammunition, propelled with the aid of a wooden sabot; for naval combat, it could also employ a mixed load of a single stone cannonball combined with a reduced amount of iron pellets.

2. Forged Wrought Iron Great General Cannon

(Around 1584 — end of the Ming Dynasty)

Designed by military innovator Ye Meng Xiong (葉夢熊) around 1584, the wrought-iron Great General Cannon, also called Da Shen Pao (大神砲, lit. 'Great Divine Cannon') and Ye Gong Shen Chong (葉公神銃, lit. 'Lord Ye's Divine Gun'), was created by redesigning the wrought-iron loading chamber of the earlier Wu Di Da Jiang Jun into a single, full-length standalone cannon, adapting existing expertise in forging wrought-iron guns such as the Hu Dun Pao (虎蹲砲) to a significantly heavier artillery piece.

Wrought-iron type Great General Cannon displayed atop the Great Wall at Juyongguan Pass.

Constructed entirely from wrought iron, this type of Great General Cannon featured a nearly untapered profile and lacked a flared muzzle, though a reinforcing hoop protecting the muzzle created the subtle appearance of one. Its barrel was girded along its length by a series of forged wrought-iron hoops that could optionally incorporate trunnions, lifting rings, or simple iron sights — replacing the integrally cast reinforcing rings of earlier bombard-type designs — while the breech featured a distinctive abacus-bead-shaped enlargement that formed a reinforced powder chamber. The cannon retained its characteristic flared foot — now made slightly taller — to facilitate stable upright reloading, although it was now also designed for mounting on a gun carriage and could be loaded horizontally.

3D render of a wrought-iron type Great General Cannon mounted on a Ming-style gun carriage. From 《中国古代兵器大百科》.

Cannons of this type were graded hierarchically using characters from the Thousand Character Classic and the Yijing: the largest and most powerful was designated Tian Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (天字號大將軍), followed in descending order of size, calibre, and firepower by Di Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (地字號大將軍) and Xuan Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (玄字號大將軍). A fourth grade, called Ren Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun (仁字號大將軍), also existed, which was seemingly comparable to Tian Zi Hao Da Jiang Jun. Far more examples of this type have survived than of the earlier bombard-type, making it the most representative variant of the Great General Cannon. Most surviving specimens measure between 110 cm and 195 cm in length, with bore diameters ranging from 8 cm to 14.5 cm and weights from 88.5 kg to 300 kg — though written records indicate that some reached as much as 600 kg. Many surviving examples are around 140–145 cm long, with bore diameters typically in the 11–12 cm range.

The wrought-iron Great General Cannon represented a revolution in indigenous Chinese artillery technology. Unlike Western wrought-iron guns, which were typically constructed using thin longitudinal iron staves bound together by shrunk-on hoops, Chinese wrought-iron cannons employed a fundamentally different forging method: multiple curved iron plates (either two or four per layer) were forge-welded together over a solid cylindrical mandrel to form an initial tube segment, with the seams slightly overlapped rather than butted edge-to-edge for added strength and better weld integrity. Additional layers of curved plates were then applied — seams carefully offset between successive layers — until the barrel reached the desired wall thickness. Multiple shorter tubes produced in this manner were subsequently forge-welded end-to-end to achieve the full desired barrel length, after which the assembled barrel was carefully cold-worked and ground to refine the bore, smooth the interior surface, and ensure uniformity, before reinforcing hoops were added.

Left: Boxted Bombard with visible inner stave seams. Right: A Great General Cannon preserved in Korea, brazenly arrogated as a Korean invention.

Compared to the Western hoop-and-stave method — which suffered from bore inconsistencies due to stave misalignment, long continuous longitudinal seams prone to splitting under pressure, risk of hoop failure over time, and uneven stress distribution that could cause sudden catastrophic bursting—the Chinese layered-plate approach produced a more monolithic, uniform, and resilient barrel with superior resistance to hoop stress and reduced risk of longitudinal failure, while also cutting down on overall weight compared to equivalent cast bronze or cast iron guns. Despite being called a “wrought-iron” gun, the metal used in forging the barrel of the Great General Cannon can actually be considered low-carbon steel; only the reinforcing hoops were true wrought iron. This enabled the wrought-iron Great General Cannon to deliver exceptional power for its weight: typical examples (with bore diameters around 11–12 cm) could be loaded with 1.2–1.5 kg of gunpowder per shot, propelling cannonballs weighing as much as 5 kg (roughly 11 pounder), although it was more typically loaded with a bore-matching lead or iron cannonball plus smaller grapeshot and lead/iron pellets to increase the total projectile weight, combining the penetrating power of the solid ball with the wider anti-personnel spread of the scatter load. In fact, it was later discovered that the cannon was so overbuilt that its reinforcing hoops weren't even needed and had become dead weight, leading to the development of a hoopless version called the Wei Yuan Pao (威遠砲).

2.1 Long-barrelled Great General Cannon

(Probably around 1620 — end of the Ming Dynasty)

For most of the Ming period, heavier Chinese artillery typically functioned as a superheavy regimental gun: lightweight and mobile, offering firepower comparable to a full-sized field piece, yet relatively short-barrelled and short-ranged. These cannons were deployed when the enemy breached the overlapping fields of fire from matchlocks, handgonnes, and lighter anti-personnel pieces, or served as a devastating close-range counter-charge weapon against advancing forces.

By the 17th century, however, the arrival of long-barrelled Hong Yi Pao (紅夷砲) — European-style muzzle-loading smoothbore culverins (many of which also bore the title “Great General Cannon” but were not recognised as a distinct class under that name) — combined with the growing military threat posed by the rising Jurchen/Manchu forces, brought about a renewed emphasis on accurate long-range fire. This change was mirrored in native wrought-iron cannons, which increasingly adopted length-to-bore ratios approaching those of European designs. Regrettably, the Ming Dynasty fell before this evolution of wrought-iron cannons could fully mature, and as a result there were only a few surviving pieces of these later designs.

A late Ming period long-barrelled wrought iron cannon preserved at Shanxi Province Art Museum.

The long-barrelled wrought-iron cannon preserved at the Shanxi Province Art Museum (pictured above) is one of the few surviving pieces from the late Ming period. It measures 260 cm in length, with a barrel diameter of 20 cm and a bore of 9.5 cm, giving a bore-to-length ratio of approximately 27:1. It has an untapered low-carbon steel barrel reinforced with seven wrought-iron hoops, lacks the abacus-bead-shaped powder chamber found on earlier wrought-iron Great General Cannons, and has a flat wrought iron rear cap instead of the flared foot. The cannon is uninscribed, so its exact forging date and location are unknown. Due to this (and lacking some characterising features), it is uncertain whether it is truly a Great General Cannon or another type of Ming wrought-iron cannon, although it certainly has the firepower to match and a longer range than a standard wrought-iron Great General Cannon, and is treated as one by researchers.

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Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (國初三眼鎗) and Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (國初雙頭鎗)

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (left) and Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (centre), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The Guo Chu San Yan Qiang (國初三眼鎗, lit. 'Founding-era three-eyed spear') and the Guo Chu Shuang Tou Qiang (國初雙頭鎗, lit. 'Founding-era double-headed spear') were two elusive firearms mentioned by the mysterious old Daoist priest whom the Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) met in front of the Gongde Temple (功德寺). 

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Zhao Shi Zhen's handgonnes

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Although originally an advocate of universal adoption of matchlock firearms, Ming Dynasty firearm specialist and inventor Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) later reconsidered his views after a chance meeting and and conversation with a mysterious Daoist priest in front of the Gongde Temple (功德寺) while on a fowling trip on Kunming Lake. Thereafter, he adopted a more nuanced position and began to seriously explore various advantages that traditional Chinese handgonnes had to offer, and to refine and improve them.

Ma Shang San Yan Chong (馬上三眼銃, lit. 'Horseback three-eyed gun')

Drawing of a Ma Shang San Yan Chong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Known in full as the Xin Gai Ma Bu Xiang Yi San Yan Qiang (新改馬步相宜三眼鎗, lit. 'Newly modified three-eyed spear suitable on foot and on horseback'), this weapon was Zhao Shi Zhen's improved design of the classic San Yan Chong (三眼銃), which he developed just as the classic San Yan Chong began to see widespread adoption by the Ming military.

The biggest improvement made by Zhao Shi Zhen was replacing the original barrel of the San Yan Chong—which was typically made from three cast iron barrels forge-welded/cast together, making it top heavy and prone to overheating—with his own design, which used three separate longer barrels forged in the same way as matchlock gun barrels (i.e., rolled from skelp or iron strips and hammer-welded along a seam for a stronger, more uniform tube, double-layered for better integrity, plus individual screw-in breech plugs), all mounted on a grooved wooden bedding. This arrangement reduced the weapon's overall weight for easier handling, improved balance through the lighter construction, and allowed for easier maintenance and replacement of individual barrels.

Various components of the Xin Gai Ma Bu Xiang Yi San Yan Qiang, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen also mounted a tanged blade and disc guard to the butt of the weapon, transforming the Ma Shang San Yan Chong into a versatile hybrid firearm. The tanged blade allowed the user to wield the weapon as a close-quarters polearm for thrusting and slashing after discharging the barrels, with the barrels themselves serving as a counterweight for better balance. Meanwhile, the heavy clustered barrels themselves could serve as an improvised bludgeon for blunt strikes, providing a fallback option where reloading wasn't feasible.

Furthermore, Zhao Shi Zhen tailored the weapon into two variants to accommodate different combat roles. The infantry version featured a longer overall length of approximately 5 chi 5 cun, while the cavalry version was shorter, measuring around 4 chi 4 cun.

Xian Chong (鍁銃, spade gun) and Jue Chong (镢銃, hoe gun)

Highlighted Xian Chong (above) and Jue Chong (below), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen further adapted the Ma Shang San Yang Chong by replacing its tanged blade with spade- or hoe-shaped heads in specialized variants, known as Xian Chong and Jue Chong respectively. Both variants retained the firearm's volley capability while while serving as practical tools for frontier engineering.

San Shen Tang (三神鎲, lit. 'Three divine Tangpa')

Drawing of a San Shen Tang and its detachable matchlock trigger, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The San Shen Tang can be considered to represent Zhao Shi Zhen's further refinement of the Ma Shang San Yan Chong, as it went beyond merely accommodating different combat roles for infantry and cavalry to also adapt to the habits of soldiers from both southern and northern China.

The primary modification made by Zhao Shi Zhen was the incorporation of a detachable matchlock trigger mechanism—likely borrowed from the Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃)— which enabled the weapon to be braced and aimed like a matchlock gun by soldiers already familiar with such firearms, particularly those from southern China (although its accuracy still fell somewhat short of that of a true matchlock's), while retaining the flexibility to be used like a traditional handgonne by soldiers unfamiliar with matchlocks, particularly those from northern China. A second key modification was the replacement of the tanged blade of Ma Shang San Yan Chong with the head of a pronged Tang Pa (鎲鈀), which was far more versatile on a shorter polearm than a simple spearhead.

Top: A soldier aiming a trigger-attached San Shen Tang. Bottom: A soldier using a Ma Shang San Yan Chong on horseback. From 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

In a sense, the San Shen Tang can be considered a simpler and more practical successor of the Xun Lei Chong.

Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃)

Bottom and side view of Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

The Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong was a very unusual double-barrelled handgonne configured like a tonfa or arm shield.

Click here for more information about this handgonne.

Huo Dan Tong (火彈筒, lit. 'Fire bullet tube')

Drawing of a Huo Dan Tong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'

The Huo Dan Tong was a hand-mortar-style flare gun and one of the earliest of its kind in the world, predating the Very pistol by nearly three centuries and being predated only by the flare launcher of the Xun Lei Chong (迅雷銃), which was also designed by Zhao Shi Zhen.

Click here for more information about this flare gun.

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Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃)

Bottom and side view of Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Among the many ingenious and unconventional firearms crafted by the renowned Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), the Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong (步下翼虎銃, lit. 'Infantry Winged Tiger Gun') stood out as particularly enigmatic and elusive.

Unlike Zhao Shi Zhen's other designs, which he described in detail in his writings, this peculiar weapon survived only through two illustrations in his work, as well as a single brief, off-hand remark—that it was suitable only for use in Southern China—leaving its exact design, function, and mechanism largely unknown, most likely because any fuller written description has been lost to time.

Nevertheless, while any description must remain conjectural due to the absence of Zhao Shi Zhen’s documentation, the two surviving illustrations allow us to make an educated guess on the nature of this weapon.

From the illustrations, the Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong appeared to be a forearm-mounted firearm in a configuration similar to a tonfa. It featured a grip handle with a hand guard near the forward end of the assembly, though it was unclear whether the grip was oriented perpendicular to the barrel (resembling the classic tonfa’s cross-handle) or horizontal (resembling a shield grip). Complementing the grip was an elbow loop that enabled the firearm to be strapped or braced securely along the forearm.

The Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong incorporated two gun barrels aligned side by side and running slightly longer than the length of the forearm, with their muzzles positioned at the rearward end (in the direction of the elbow when braced). These were handgonnes without any mechanical trigger or lock mechanism, relying instead on primitive touch holes—likely located on the underside of the weapon—for ignition, making it, ironically, the only handgonne that Zhao Shizhen deemed suitable for use in Southern China only. Owing to its design, the user probably had to bend his elbow to aim the weapon and gain access to the touch holes before he could fire it—using a posture that might not have been too far removed from the modern sniper cradle position.

A soldier firing Bu Xia Yi Hu Chong, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Interestingly, the weapon also incorporated a prominent spike projecting from the rearward end—in the same direction as its muzzles. Its precise purpose remained unclear, as it could scarcely have served for forward thrusting and was most likely intended to aid aiming.

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Zhao Shi Zhen's fire lances

Note: The content of this blog post was originally taken from my other articles. However, I decided to write a separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Although normally focused on more advanced weapons, Ming firearm specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨) also devised several devised several comparatively simpler and more primitive fire lances. These functioned primarily as close-combat supplements to his advanced war carts, with their gunpowder bursts designed to disrupt Mongol cavalry charges and Wokou swordsmen, allowing the fire lancers to then finish off disorganised foes in melee easily.

Li Hua Qiang (梨花鎗)

Zhao Shi Zhen's Li Hua Qiang, from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen's modified Li Hua Qiang was simply a slightly enhanced version of the original fire lance, featuring two additional fire tubes to to extend the duration of the flame and incendiary discharge.

Tian Peng Chan (天蓬鏟)

Zhao Shi Zhen's Tian Peng Chan (highlighted), from 'Shen Qi Pu (《神器譜》)'.

Zhao Shi Zhen also modified the Tian Peng Chan, transforming it into a fire lance by attaching two Peng Tong (噴筒) to the shaft.

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Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛郎機)

Note: This blog post was originally part of my Breech-loading Cannons of the Ming Dynasty article. However, I decided to split (and slightly modify) this section into its own separate article for cleaner navigation, tidier organization, and easier reading and digestion.

Drawing of a Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji, its gun carriage, and three loading chambers. From Qing period 'Yi Hai Zhu Chen (《藝海珠塵》)'.

The Bai Zi Fo Lang Ji (百子佛狼機, lit. 'Hundred-bullet Fo Lang Ji') was an advanced variant of the heavier type of Fo Lang Ji breech-loading cannon designed by Ming firearms specialist Zhao Shi Zhen (趙士楨), who made several key improvements to the weapon. Namely, Zhao Shi Zhen lengthened and reinforced the gun barrel and mounted it on a wooden tiller, while also designing a wheeled gun carriage for the weapon.

The design of the wheeled gun carriage was where Zhao Shi Zhen truly demonstrated his genius. The unique gun carriage was of two-wheeled design (though the wheels were detached prior to firing), equipped with four swing-down stands, paired thills at the rear, along with two L-shaped anchoring irons at the front that anchored the carriage to the ground to counteract recoil.

In addition, Zhao Shizhen also fitted an iron bucket densely packed with cotton at the rear of the gun carriage to act as a recoil absorber, and replaced the deck planks of the gun carriage with wooden conveyor rollers, so that upon firing, the cannon slid rearward along the rollers against the bucket, compressing the cotton buffer to dampen the recoil—in essence, he had invented an early form of sliding recoil mechanism in the early 17th century.

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Elite Unit of the Ming Dynasty — Biao Bing (標兵)

Armoured Ming cavalrymen, cropped from 'Ping Fan De Sheng Tu (平番得勝圖)'.

While Jia Ding (家丁) was perhaps the most famous Ming Dynasty elite unit, it was not the only one, nor were these semi-private soldiers the most numerous. In actuality, soldiers known as Biao Bing (標兵), an abbreviation of Biao Xia Zhi Bing (標下之兵, lit. 'Soldier under a marked banner'), vastly outnumbered the Jia Ding, and were the closest thing the Ming Dynasty had to a formal elite military formation.

Similar to Jia Ding, Biao Bing also had its root in the long-time practice of high-ranking commanders maintaining their own personal retinues, although it was primarily influenced by, and remained a part of, the Ying Bing System (營兵制). Biao Bing were soldiers that directly and exclusively answered to military overseers (and later Regional Commanders), which, given their high ranks, meant that Biao Bing were drawn from and maintained as the best and most elite soldiers.

Unlike Jia Ding, the founding of a Biao Bing regiment was subject to approval by the central government, and Biao Bing were answerable to the military overseer's position, rather than to the individual. Thus if a military overseer was transferred to another post, he did not take the Biao Bing with him; instead the soldiers answered to his replacement. For this reason, commanders that maintained their own Jia Ding generally avoided assigning their own Jia Ding into Biao Bing regiments.

The earliest Biao Bing regiments, respectively under the command of Supreme Commander of Military Affairs and Concurrently Director-general of Supplies in Xuanda and Shanxi (宣大總督) Weng Wan Da (翁萬達) and Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) Zeng Xian (曾銑), were founded in 1546, both as a response to the increasingly dire threat possessed by the dreaded Altan Khan necessitating military built-up and increase of battle-readiness along the Ming frontiers. After the establishment of Supreme Commander-led Biao Bing, various Grand Coordinators also followed suit, and later even Regional Commanders begun to raise their own Biao Bing regiments.

As the practice grew widespread, Biao Bing went from being an elite core to the backbone of the Ming army, prompting the need to distinguish various types of Biao Bing: regiments serving under Supreme Commanders or Overseers of the Armed Force were known as Du Biao Ying (督標營, "Overseer-marked regiment"), those led by Grand Coordinators were known as Xun Biao Ying (巡標營, . 'Coordinator-marked regiment"), while Biao Bing commanded by Regional Commanders were organised into Zhen Biao Ying (鎮標營, "Regional-marked regiment").

Recruitment

There were no standardised, codified criteria for recruiting Biao Bing, and they were recruited from a wide variety of sources—often with members of the same unit hailing from markedly different origins. Common sources included:

1. Exceptional soldiers handpicked from existing regiments

Because Biao Bing often served the highest-ranking military overseers of a given theatre—who naturally wanted the very best soldiers under their command—a common method of quickly raising a new Biao Bing regiment was to simply cream the best soldiers and leaders from existing units.

Occasionally, some Regional Commanders—who lacked the authority of military overseers—converted entire Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營) under their command into Biao Bing regiments.

2. Direct recruitment

Given that Biao Bing were more numerous than Jia Ding and organised as full regiments, continually skimming the best soldiers from existing units to raise yet more Biao Bing regiments quickly became impractical and self-defeating—especially once the practice became more common. As such, raising Biao Bing regiments from new recruits remained the preferred method.

3. Tong Shi (通事, lit. 'Translator/interpreter') and Ye Bu Shou (夜不收)

Specialist units such as Tong Shi and Ye Bu Shou were especially valued for their hardiness and their familiarity with local geography, customs, and cultures, making them excellent candidates for Biao Bing recruitment. However, their scarcity meant that Tong Shi and Ye Bu Shou could only supplement the Biao Bing, never constituting the bulk of the regiments’ numbers.

4. Jia Ding

Already elite-trained, Jia Ding naturally made excellent Biao Bing candidates, so attempts were made to recruit them as far back as the earliest conception of Biao Bing. This often came in the form of assigning disgraced commanders along with their Jia Ding into Biao Bing units. Nevertheless, due to conflicting loyalties and the fact that Jia Ding often refused to leave their liege's side for long, these attempts were met with varying success.

Equipment, organisation and tactics

Because Biao Bing were functionally the elite version of normal Ying Bing units, they were organized no differently from ordinary regiments. There was no limitation on arm of service, equipment, or origin of recruits, and no requirement that all members of the same Biao Bing regiment had to belong to the same troop type. They simply received better-quality training, superior equipment, higher status, and improved pay than their ordinary counterparts. Naturally, Biao Bing were more or less indistinguishable from regular Ming soldiers in appearance; only their chain of command sets them apart. 

Many powerful and famous military units in the history of the Ming Dynasty were in fact Biao Bing that exclusively answered to certain military overseers. Notable examples included the war cart regiment of Zeng Xian (曾銑) and the Biao Bing army of Sun Chuan Ting (孫傳庭) during the final years of the Ming Dynasty.

The Regiment's Finest

The Biao Bing served two primary functions, namely to act as an elite vanguard, as well as serving as exemplars to other soldiers. These functions often encompassed serving as military overseer's retinues and bodyguards, fighting in the thick of battle where enemy resistance was fiercest, demonstrating the highest standards of courage and discipline and leading by example, as well as reinforcing military overseer's authority and dominance in order to prevent and suppress potential insubordination and mutiny.

And Biao Bing's battlefield performance certainly lived up to to the elite quality demanded of soldiers entrusted with such functions. Soon after Biao Bing's inception, a contingent of roughly one hundred Biao Bing, who served under Wen Wang Da and were stationed at Bogegu (鵓鴿峪, lit. 'Rock dove valley'), came under attack by tens of thousands of Mongol cavalry . Outnumbered a hundred to one and losing one of their commanders early, these Biao Bing nevertheless fought a valiant last stand, killing nearly six times their own numbers before being overrun. Victory though it was, the Mongols were so shaken by the horrific casualties that they vented their anger by ripping open the bellies of all fallen Biao Bing and stuffing them with rocks—yet the reputation of these fearsome soldiers would still send shockwaves across the entire steppe.

The last stand at Bogegu was certainly not an isolated incident, and Biao Bing would continue to steadfastly serve as the backbone of the Ming military—sometimes even constituting the majority—until the dynasty’s downfall. In fact, even after Ming Dynasty fell into terminal decline, Biao Bing still retained much of their combat prowess. The Biao Bing of Sun Chuan Ting, for example, were instrumental in crushing the Shaanxi peasant rebellion and capturing rebel leader Gao Ying Xian (高迎祥) alive in a brilliantly executed ambush.  

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Military systems and hierarchies of the Ming Dynasty — Part 2: Ying Bing System

Note: English translation of the titles are taken from Chinese-English Dictionary of Ming Government Official Titles, Third Edition, supplemented with some translations of my own.

Note that my own translations and translations taken from elsewhere are italicised.

As the Ming Dynasty began to decline in the sixteenth century, the Wei-Suo System also became increasingly dysfunctional. Corruption, land consolidation, and ever-increasing varieties of corvee labours placed a heavy burden on Wei-Suo servicemen, leading to rampant desertions among able-bodied servicemen, while those who remained were often too old or too weak to desert, and likewise unable to perform military duties. The ailing Wei-Suo System necessitated a reform to salvage the military preparedness of the Ming army, thus a new system known as Ying Bing System (營兵制) was introduced, so-named because soldiers were now organised into regiments known as Ying (營, lit. 'Camp, battalion') instead of Guards and Garrisons.

At its core, Ying Bing System was devised to better manage Mu Bing (募兵, lit. 'Recruited soldier')—a new type of hired soldiery that were recruited and paid a salary for the duration of a military campaign—on a more permanent basis. However, it'd be a reductive misinterpretation to view Ying Bing as some sort of mercenaries, and that the new Ying Bing System superseded the old Wei-Suo System.

In actuality, the bulk of Ying Bing regiments actually comprised of military household servicemen, and both systems ran in parallel and supplemented each others till the very end of the Ming Dynasty. Essentially, Ying Bing System took over the operational functions of the military, allowing Wei-Suo System to be shifted to a primarily administrative role. Under this new system, able-bodied servicemen were drawn from Guards and Garrisons and reorganised into battle-ready regiments, with any vacancies filled by civilian recruits and other sources. This also led to an interesting and unique phenomenon where hereditary military household servicemen, often referred to as Jun (軍, lit. 'Military', i.e. serviceman), and regimented soldiers, often referred to as Bing (兵, lit. 'Soldier'), were seen as two distinct but strongly overlapping entities during Ming period.

Nevertheless, since the Ying Bing System was introduced rather haphazardly as an ad hoc workaround for the ailing Wei-Suo System, and its initial implementation was immature and far from seamless, the system underwent continuous tweaking and refinement until the end of the Ming Dynasty, making it challenging to generalise.

As an institutionalised field formation, leadership positions of the Ying Bing System were directly dispatched and appointed by the central government, and denoted roles rather than formal titles. As such, none of the positions had either a rank or a salary, and it was not unusual for one person to assume several positions concurrently. In addition, there were also numerous one-off titles created for specific purposes.

1. Military Overseers

A unique aspect of the Ying Bing System was that its highest command echelon was dominated not by military officials but by civil officials, who assumed the role of military overseers. Initially, military overseers managed the strategic planning and administrative aspects of the military; however, some were soon granted authority to command military forces, even though planning and administration remained their primary responsibilities.

Military overseers with command authority recruited their soldiers independently of standard regiments, which were directly subordinate to them. These regiments, known as Biao Bing Ying (標兵營), were often made up of the cream of the crop of soldiers, trained to a comparable standard to Jia Ding (家丁).

Du Shi (督師)/Overseer of the Armed Force

Belatedly established during the final years of the Ming Dynasty, Overseer of the Armed Force was the highest-ranking military officer of the Ming Dynasty's military, and was granted the authority to command all military assets in a given theatre, usually four to seven Sheng (省), or provinces.

Overseer of the Armed Force was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis, which, given the position's extensive geographical jurisdiction, usually meant the empire was facing a major crisis.

Jing Lue (經略)/Military Affairs Commissioner

A Military Affairs Commissioner was a high-ranking military overseer primarily tasked with coordinating military operations involving either the Japanese or the Jurchens/Manchu, and was granted authority to command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders involved in a given military campaign. Military Affairs Commissioner slightly outranked Supreme Commander, the next-highest position, although it lacked the authority to issue direct orders to Supreme Commander. On the occasions when both Military Affairs Commissioner and Supreme Commander were present in the same military campaign, decisions were made through discussion and collective agreement between the two.

Similar to Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner was not a permanent position and could be appointed and dismissed on an as-needed basis. By and large, this position was only needed when there was a wartime emergency or important military campaign.

Zong Du (總督)/Supreme Commander

A Supreme Commander was a senior military overseer with the authority to coordinate and command Grand Coordinators and Regional Commanders from two to three adjacent provinces, defence regions, or a combination of the two.

For the most part, Supreme Commander was also not a permanent position and could be appointed or dismissed on an as-needed basis, although there were some notable exceptions such as Supreme Commander of Liangguang (兩廣總督), Supreme Commander of Military Affairs in the Three Frontiers of Shaanxi (三邊總督) and a few others, which were functionally permanent posts.

Xun Fu (巡撫)/Grand Coordinator

A Grand Coordinator was a official tasked with overseeing the Provincial Administration Commission (布政司), Provincial Surveillance Commission (按察司), and Regional Military Commission of a designated area, usually but not always a province, thus making him functionally the highest-ranking governing official of that area. Unlike the Overseer of the Armed Force, Military Affairs Commissioner, and Supreme Commander, Grand Coordinator was not a strictly military position, although its responsibility and authority could be, and often was, further expanded to encompass military roles within its province, ranging from administrative and advisory positions to full authority to command Military Superintendents and Regional Commanders.

Originally an imperial auditor dispatched by the emperor to evaluate and, if necessary, intervene in the operations of provincial governments, the Grand Coordinator was made a permanent post with its own government office during mid-Ming period, as it was found to be effective in enabling the central government to exert direct control over its provinces.

Circuit official

A Dao (道), or circuit, was a supervising institution established by the provincial governments to oversee and monitor the operations of prefecture-level governments, although over time it also gradually assumed governing and administrative responsibilities. Many types of circuits existed, often with confusingly overlapping roles and responsibilities. However, by far the most common were Fen Shou Dao (分守道), or the General Administration Circuit, primarily responsible for administration, finance and taxation; and Fen Xun Dao (分巡道), or the General Surveillance Circuit, primarily responsible for law enforcement, public order, and governance oversight.

Regarding military matters, the circuit primarily responsible was Bing Bei Dao (兵備道), or the Military Defence Circuit, although it sometimes shared this role with General Administration Circuit and General Surveillance Circuit. Military Defence Circuit was charged with training Wei-Suo servicemen and militia, manufacturing and maintaining weapons and equipment, building and maintaining fortifications and city walls, managing logistics, soldier's pay, and military household farmlands, law enforcement and public safety, river and coastal patrols, fostering smoother cooperation between Wei-Suo System and Ying Bing System, and many more. During wartime, circuit officials served in a similar role as Grand Coordinator but in a lesser capacity, reporting to the former and assisting field commanders of lower ranks such as Vice Regional Commanders and Assistant Regional Commanders.

Less commonly, Xun Hai Dao (巡海道), or the Coastal Patrol Circuit, which was more specialised in coastal patrols, combating piracy, and regulating maritime trade, would also be involved in military affairs, especially against naval threats.

Military-related circuits also served an important secondary function—that is, serving in these circuits allowed low-ranking civil officials to accustom themselves to military matters early in their careers. This ensured that a cadre of military-trained civil officials was always available to serve, thereby reducing the likelihood of unqualified officials with no practical military experience being abruptly promoted into senior military roles.

2. Field Commanders

In contrast to military overseers, the role of field commanders was exclusively held by military officials. Their primary duty was to lead battlefield operations, with secondary responsibilities including overseeing training, maintaining fortifications, and even managing canal dredging.

Ti Du (提督)/Military Superintendent

A Military Superintendent was a commanding officer who was granted additional authority over military assets beyond his designated area of responsibility. Typically, this referred to a Regional Commander or Vice Regional Commander who also commanded a few Garrisons in an adjacent province (because a country's defence disposition does not always align with its administrative division), in such cases his original title took precedence as his primary responsibility outweighed his secondary one. However, for major military campaigns, a Regional Commander who was granted the title of Military Superintendent could even command other Regional Commanders subordinated to him, and in such cases he would adopt the title of Military Superintendent as his new primary title, although only for the duration of that campaign.

Elsewise, a Grand Coordinator who was granted full military authority over a province would also receive the same title (the title of Grand Coordinator still took precedence).

Zong Bing (總兵)/Regional Commander

A Regional Commander was a commanding officer with operational authority over a designated area, either a province or a Zhen (鎮), or defence region. Barring the provisional Military Superintendent, it was the highest attainable position for a military official.

The full title of a Regional Commander was actually Zhen Shou Zong Bing Guan (鎮守總兵官, lit. 'Region-defending commander'), with the prefix of Zhen Shou (鎮守, lit. 'Regional defence') indicating that he was responsible for the defence of the entire province or defence region. Naturally, a Regional Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a fortress-settlement called Zhen Cheng (鎮城, lit. '[Defence] Region-city'), which also served as the military headquarters of the entire defence region.

A regiment under direct command of a Regional Commander was known as a Zheng Bing Ying (正兵營, lit. 'Orthodox soldier regiment'). However, after the practice of raising Biao Bing Ying became widespread, Regional Commanders also gradually switched to raising their own Biao Bing Ying.

Fu Zong Bing (副總兵)/Vice Regional Commander

A Vice Regional Commander, as the title suggests, was the second-in-command to the Regional Commander. The position came in two main types, one with the prefix Xie Shou (協守, lit. 'Assisting defence'), who was stationed together with and assisted the Regional Commander; the other with the prefix Fen Shou (分守, lit. 'Separate defence'), who guarded a sub-region within a defence region, called Lu (路), or route. Usually, a Sub-regional Vice Commander and the regiments under his command would be stationed at a smaller fortress-settlement called Lu Cheng (路城, lit. 'Route-city').

A regiment under direct command of a Vice Regional Commander was known as a Qi Bing Ying (奇兵營, lit. 'Unorthodox soldier regiment'). True to its namesake, Qi Bing Ying often engaged in unorthodox tactics such as ambush and flanking attack, and was considered the most elite among the standard regiments.

Can Jiang (參將)/Assistant Regional Commander

An Assistant Regional Commander was a commanding officer ranked below Vice Regional Commander, who advised and assisted the Regional Commander. Like Vice Regional Commander, it also came in Xie Shou and Fen Shou variety, although the majority were Sub-regional Assistant Commanders (i.e. Fen Shou prefix) that guarded either a single route or a strategic choke point (such as a major gateway of the Great Wall). An Assistant Regional Commander outranked a Mobile Corps Commander but did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the latter, as both answered only to Regional Commander.

A regiment under direct command of an Assistant Regional Commander was known as a Yuan Bing Ying (援兵營, lit. 'Succoring soldier regiment'), which focused on safeguarding its designated route, as well as supporting, reinforcing, and acting in concert with other regiments during a larger military campaign.

You Ji (游擊)/Mobile Corps Commander

A Mobile Corps Commander was a commanding officer who had no designated area of responsibility, and could be deployed anywhere within the defence region as the Regional Commander deemed fit. He also had limited authority to engage the enemy or reinforce other commanders at his discretion, without awaiting orders from higher command.

A regiment under direct command of a Mobile Corps Commander was known as a You Bing Ying (游兵營, lit. 'Roaming soldier regiment'), which functioned as a rapid response force.

Du Si (都司)/Supervising Commander

Originally a short form of Regional Military Commission, Du Si or Supervising Commander had since become a title of a military officer during mid-to-late Ming period, primarily responsible for leading and managing Zhong Jun (中軍, lit. 'Army of the Centre'), the headquarters unit of a regiment. Occasionally, Supervising Commander also served as either acting Assistant Regional Commander or acting Mobile Corps Commander.

Supervising Commander outranked Municipal Military Commander, despite the title being introduced later. It did not have the authority to issue direct orders to Municipal Military Commander.

Shou Bei (守備)/Municipal Military Commander

A Municipal Military Commander was a commanding officer who was responsible for the defence of a single settlement or fortress, and was usually stationed at a Wei Cheng, a Suo Cheng (i.e. existing Wei-Suo System fortress-settlements), or an even smaller fortress-settlement called Bao Cheng (堡城, lit. 'Fort-town'). Most Municipal Military Commanders were subordinate to an Assistant Regional Commander, although there were some that answered directly to the Regional Commander, or even Supreme Commander.

Soldiers under the command of Municipal Military Commanders were known as Shou Cheng Bing (守城兵, lit. 'City-defending soldier'), who were often drawn from Cheng Chao Jun (城操軍, lit. 'City-defending and drilling serviceman')— that is, Wei-Suo servicemen selected for city defence duty and underwent regular training, blurring the line between the two. Shou Cheng Bing were considered the lowest quality soldiers and rarely form regiments, although they still met minimum combat-capable standards. In time of need, Shou Cheng Bing also acted as a reservist force and provided replacement personnel for other regiments.

3. Junior Military Officers

Junior military officers were grassroots-level officers that assisted field commanders in various operational duties. They were appointed by the local Grand Coordinators or (rarely) Supreme Commanders, rather than the central government, and thus were not generally considered Jiang Guang (將官, lit. 'General-official') or "commander", although this wasn't a hard rule (Municipal Military Commander for example could be appointed by a Supreme Commander).

Since local Grand Coordinators or Supreme Commanders appointed their respective junior military officers, there was little standardization in their titles and responsibilities. Nevertheless, junior military officers could still be broadly grouped into two categories, namely Guang Ying Guan (管營官) and Shou Tu Guan (守土官), which will be elaborated below.

3.1 Guan Ying Guan (管營官)/Regiment-managing Officers

Regiment-managing Officers were junior military officers subordinate to their respective Regiment Commanders, responsible for leading small units, executing command orders, managing troop training and so on. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there was little standardisation at the regimental level, as different commanders organised and structured their respective regiments differently. There were also clear differences between regiments raised in North China and regiments raised in South China.

For example, unit hierarchy of the Qi Jia Jun (戚家軍) was as follow:

• Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Shao (哨, 49 personnel) — Guan (官, 297 personnel) — Zong (總, roughly 940 personnel) — Da Ying (大營, roughly 4,000 personnel)

For comparison, Ji Defence Region Infantry Regiment led by the same commander was organised as follow:

• Wu (伍, five personnel) — Dui (隊, 12 personnel) — Qi (旗, 37 personnel) — Ju (局, 112 personnel) — Si (司, 449 personnel) — Bu (部, 889 personnel) — Ying (營, 2,699 personnel)

This shows that there could be considerable variations between regiments, even those led by the same commander at different times. As such, the following list of Regiment-managing Officers only represented the most generic structure of a North China defence region regiment.

Ying Jiang (營將)/Regiment Commander

A Regiment Commander, as its name suggests, was a commanding officer appointed to lead a single regiment on behalf of a higher-ranked commander who had multiple regiments under his command, and thus could not personally lead each one. Usually, Regiment Commanders led Biao Bing Ying on behalf of military overseers, who generally lacked combat training.

(Note: Regiment Commander was not a junior military officer)

Zhong Jun Guan (中軍官)/Officer of the Army of the Centre

An Officer of the Army of the Centre was one of the positions that a Supervising Commander could hold, with the primary responsibilities of relaying orders from the commander to the rest of the regiment.

Zuo Ying Guan (坐營官)/Military Official on-duty

A Military Official on-duty was another position that a Supervising Commander could hold, the primary responsibilities of which were to manage and lead the regiment. Oftentimes, Officer of the Army of the Centre and Military Official on-duty were merged into one position, called Zuo Ying Zhong Jun Guan (坐營中軍官), and held by a single officer.

Qian Zong (千總)/Battalion Officer

A Battalion Officer typically commanded a military unit of two companies, totalling one thousand soldiers, called a Shao (哨, lit. 'Sentry'), or Battalion.

Ba Zong (把總)/Company Officer

A Company Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten platoons, totalling five hundred soldiers, called a Si (司, lit. 'Bureau') or Company.

Guan Dui (管隊)/Platoon Officer

A Platoon Officer typically commanded a military unit of ten teams, totalling fifty soldiers, called a Dui (隊) or Platoon. Sometimes a single platoon could have up to two Platoon Officers.

Wu Zhang (伍長)/Team Leader

A Team Leader commanded a small military unit of five soldiers, called a Wu (伍), or Team.

Other than troop leaders, there were also many specialist officers, including but not limited to:

• Qi Gu Guan (旗鼓官, lit. 'Banner and drum officer'), an officer who managed the relaying of orders with flag and drum signals;
• Qi Pai Guan (旗牌官, lit. 'Banner and badge officer'), an officer who managed communication with runners;
• Tang Bao Guan (塘報官, lit. 'Scout officer'), a scout officer;
• Shen Qi Ba Zong (神器把總, lit. 'Divine tool officer'), and officer who managed the firearms division and attached artillery.

3.2 Shou Tu Guan (守土官)/Territory-defending Officers

Territory-defending Officers were junior military officers subordinate to Municipal Military Commanders, and were tasked with defending various forts, fortlets, watch towers, and villages. They came in all sort of titles with little to no standardisation, including but not limited to:

• Cao Shou (操守, Military Officer in Charge of Training and Defense Affairs)
• Bei Yu (備禦, lit. 'Warder')
• Ti Diao (提調, lit. 'Promoter')
• Fang Shou Guan (防守官, lit. 'Defence officer')
• Qian Zong (千總) and Ba Zong (把總), sharing the same titles with Battalion Officer and Company Officer respectively, but with very different duties.

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Military systems and hierarchies of the Ming Dynasty — Part 1: Wei-Suo System

Note: English translation of the titles are taken from Chinese-English Dictionary of Ming Government Official Titles, Third Edition, with minor modifications (For example, I prefer to translate Wei-Suo as "Guard-Garrison" rather than the more common "Guard-Battalion". I also changed the titles for some low-ranking military officers).

Note that my own translations are italicised.

The Wei-Suo System, which combined the military settlement structure of Sui and Tang Dynasty Fubing System (府兵制) with the hereditary military household system of Yuan Dynasty, was the principal military institution of the Ming Dynasty. Under this system, military households were organised into various Guards and Garrisons (from which the system derived its name) and provided with farmlands and tax exemptions to support their livelihood. In return, every military household was obligated to provide one serviceman for the military, one or more attendants for the serviceman, as well as his equipment and supplies.

In times of war, servicemen were drawn from various Guards and Garrisons and reorganised into field armies (Note: This meant Guards and Garrisons rarely deployed as cohesive units but were broken down and formed into mixed groups) to be led by commanders directly appointed by the emperor, returning to their respective Guards and Garrisons once the campaign was over. Such arrangement prevented military commanders from wielding too much power and threatening the throne, but it also undermined military effectiveness due to weakened cohesion and unfamiliarity among servicemen and their appointed commanders. To address these shortcomings, field armies were eventually made into functionally permanent formations in a new military system called the Ying Bing System (營兵制).

Wu Jun Du Du Fu (五軍都督府)/Five Chief Military Commissions

The Centre, Left, Right, Front and Rear Chief Military Commissions, collectively known as Five Chief Military Commissions, were ten military institutions (five in Beijing, five in Nanjing) that held the highest authority in the Wei-Suo System hierarchy. All Chief Military Commissions were equal in standing, and each oversaw most* Regional Military Commissions over a given geographical area, and was responsible for the command, training, management, logistics, and record keeping of all military households under its responsibility. They did not, however, possess the authority of appointment, promotion and transfer of military personnel, nor could they decide national defence policy or declare war (these were the purview of Ministry of War). After Tumu Crisis, even their original responsibilities and authorities were gradually subsumed by the Ministry of War.

Military titles of Five Chief Military Commissions included:

• Zuo Du Du (左都督)/Left Commissioner-in-chief (Rank 1a)
• You Du Du (右都督)/Right Commissioner-in-chief (Rank 1a)
• Du Du Tong Zhi (都督同知)/Vice Commissioner-in-chief (Rank 1b)
• Du Du Qian Shi (都督僉事)/Assistant Commissioner-in-chief (Rank 2a)

Every one of the Five Chief Military Commissions was co-led by Left Commissioner-in-chief and Right Commissioner-in-chief, who were of equal rank but different seniority (Left Commissioner-in-chief was the senior, Right Commissioner-in-chief was the junior). They were assisted by several Vice Commissioners-in-chief and several Assistant Commissioners-in-chief (no set number). Leadership positions of Chief Military Commission were not hereditary and must be promoted into.

*Note: Some Regional Military Commissions, for example Nurgan Regional Military Commission, directly reported to the emperor instead of Five Chief Military Commissions.

Du Zhi Hui Shi Si (都指揮使司)/Regional Military Commission

Often shortened to Du Si (都司), a Regional Military Commission oversaw the governance and operations of most** Guards and Garrisons of a given region.

Military titles of Regional Military Commission included:

• Du Zhi Hui Shi (都指揮使)/Regional Military Commissioner (Rank 2a)
• Du Zhi Hui Tong Zhi (都指揮同知)/Regional Military Vice Commissioner (Rank 2b)
• Du Zhi Hui Qian Shi (都指揮僉事)/Regional Military Assistant Commissioner (Rank 3a)

A Regional Military Commission was headed by one Regional Military Commissioner, who was assisted by two Regional Military Vice Commissioners and four Regional Military Assistant Commissioners. Like Five Chief Military Commissions, leadership positions of Regional Military Commission were not hereditary and must be promoted into.

**Note: Obviously, Palace Guards directly reported to the emperor, while Guard units stationed in and around the capital reported to Five Chief Military Commissions directly instead of going through a middleman. In addition, there were also some special Guard units that were outside the Wei-Suo hierarchy but also didn't report to the emperor. For example, Imperial Mausoleum Guards reported to Eunuch Protector-general of the Mausoleums at the Tianshou Mountain (天壽山守備太監).

Wei Zhi Hui Shi Si (衛指揮使司)/Guard Military Command

A Guard Military Command was the lowest tier administrative and command institution of the Wei-Suo System, which managed and commanded only a single Wei (衛), or Guard. A Guard was both an administrative unit and military unit, typically consisted of 5,600 personnel organised into five Garrisons, although Guards with more than five Garrisons were not uncommon either (in fact some Guards could have more than thirty Garrisons).

Servicemen belonged to a Guard were usually stationed at their respective Garrisons, although for strategically important areas entire Guard (or a significant portion of a Guard) could be stationed together at a fortress-settlement called Wei Cheng (衛城, lit. 'Guard-city'). It should be noted that not all military households linked to a particular Guard lived inside Wei Cheng—only commanders and active servicemen, as well as their attendants and direct family members lived in it.

Military titles of Guard Military Command included:

• Wei Zhi Hui Shi (衛指揮使)/Guard Commander (Rank 3a)
• Zhi Hui Tong Zhi (衛指揮同知)/Guard Vice Commander (Rank 3b)
• Zhi Hui Qian Shi (衛指揮僉事)/Guard Assistant Commander (Rank 4a)

A Guard was led by one Guard Commander, who was assisted by two Guard Vice Commanders and four Guard Assistant Commanders. Leadership positions of Guard were not hereditary and must be promoted into.

Qian Hu Suo (千戶所, lit. 'Thousand-household Garrison')/Garrison

Often shortened to just Suo (所), Garrison was the most basic building block of the Wei-Suo System, and typically consisted of 1,120 personnel organised into ten Sub-garrisons. Garrisons could generally be categorised into two types: Bei Yu Qian Hu Suo (備御千戶所, lit. 'Preparing and Warding Thousand-household Garrison') and Shou Yu Qian Hu Suo (守御千戶所, lit. 'Defending and Warding Thousand-household Garrison'). The former was not considered an independent administrative unit but a subunit that made up a Guard, although it could still be independently fielded and transferred. The latter however directly reported to a Regional Military Commission rather than being subordinated to a Guard, and was typically raised to defend against a specific threat (such as Wokou) or a specific strategic location.

Servicemen belonged to a Garrison usually lived in either their garrison or in the Wei Cheng of their parent Guard unit, although some Garrisons, usually but not always the independent Shou Yu Qian Hu Suo, had their own fortress-settlements called Qian Hu Suo Cheng (千戶所城, lit. 'Thousand-household Garrison-town') or simply Suo Cheng (所城, lit. 'Garrison-town').

Military titles of Garrison included:

• Zheng Qian Hu (正千戶)/Garrison Commander (Rank 5a)
• Fu Qian Hu (副千戶)/Garrison Vice Commander (Rank 5b)

A Garrison was led by one Garrison Commander, who was assisted by two Garrison Vice Commanders. Unlike leadership positions of higher hierarchies, the titles of Garrison Commander and Garrison Vice Commander were hereditary, although a successor still had to undergo a strict training and testing regime before he became eligible for these positions.

Bai Hu Suo (百戶所, lit. 'Hundred-household Garrison')/Sub-garrison

A Sub-garrison was a subunit of a Garrison and the smallest military unit that could still be fielded independently. It consisted of 112 personnel organised into two Zong Qi (總旗, lit. 'Chief banner'), which were further divided into ten Xiao Qi (小旗, lit. 'Small banner') of ten servicemen each. Zong Qi and Xiao Qi were too small to be fielded on their own.

Being a subordinated element of a Garrison, servicemen of a Sub-garrison obviously lived in their Garrison, although in some cases a Sub-garrison could be permanently stationed to a fort which was later developed into a fortified village, known as Bai Hu Suo Cheng (百戶所城, lit. 'Hundred-household Garrison-town').

Military titles of Sub-garrison included:

• Bai Hu (百戶)/Sub-garrison Commander (Rank 6a)
• Zong Qi Guan (總旗官)/Chief Banner Officer (Rank 7a)
• Xiao Qi Guan (小旗官)/Small Banner Officer (Rank 7b)

A Sub-garrison was led by a Sub-garrison Commander, two Chief Banner Officers, as well as ten Small Banner Officers. All leadership positions of a Sub-garrison were hereditary.

It should be noted that Chief Banner Officer and Small Banner Officer were minor officers and counted towards the total personnel of a given Sub-garrison, whereas Sub-garrison Commander and above were not.

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